Renewable energy in the European Union

In 2009 the Renewables Directive set binding targets for all EU Member States, such that the EU will reach a 20% share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 and a 10% share of renewable energy specifically in the transport sector. By 2014 the EU realized a 16% share of energy from renewable sources with nine member states already achieving their 2020 goals. By 2018 this had risen to 18% with twelve member states meeting their 2020 targets early.

Article 4 of the Renewables Directive required Member States to submit National Renewable Energy Action Plans by 30 June 2010. These plans, to be prepared in accordance with the template published by the Commission, provide detailed roadmaps of how each Member State expects to reach its legally binding 2020 target for the share of renewable energy in their final energy consumption. Member States must set out the sectoral targets, the technology mix they expect to use, the trajectory they will follow and the measures and reforms they will undertake to overcome the barriers to developing renewable energy. The plans are published by the EC upon receipt in the original language, allowing public scrutiny. The Commission will evaluate them, assessing their completeness and credibility. In parallel, the plans will be translated into English. In addition, the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands was contracted by the European Environment Agency to create an external database and quantitative report of the reports received so far.

In 2014, negotiations about EU energy and climate targets until 2030 were initiated. Whilst seven Central and Eastern European member states had already met their 2020 targets by 2016 (amongst the eleven EU wide), a small number of others are likely to attempt to slow down the transformation process.[4][5] The key parts of the European renewable energy targets agreement set in 2014 are as proposed by a Shell lobbyist in October 2011. Shell is the sixth biggest lobbyist in Brussels, spending between €4.25-4.5m a year lobbying the EU institutions. Agreement has no binding targets for member states on energy efficiency or renewable energy.[6]

On 30 November 2016, the Commission presented a proposal for a revised Renewable Energy Directive to ensure that the target of at least 27% renewables in the final energy consumption in the EU by 2030 is met and to ensure that the EU is a global leader in renewable energy.[7]

Underlying many of the EU's energy policy proposals is the goal to limit global temperature changes to no more than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels,[8] of which 0.8 °C has already taken place and another 0.5–0.7 °C (for total warming of 1.3-1.5 °C) is already committed.[9] 2 °C is usually seen as the upper temperature limit to avoid 'dangerous global warming'.[10] However some scientists, such as Kevin Anderson,[11] professor of energy and climate change in the School of Mechanical, Aeronautical and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and former director of the Tyndall Centre, the UK's leading academic climate change research organisation, have argued that to be consistent with the science, 1 °C is a more accurate threshold for "dangerous" climate change.[12][13]

Specific EU renewable energy and energy efficiency initiatives includes:

• BUILD UP
• The Covenant of Mayors is a cooperative network of mayors and local authorities working to implement energy initiatives.
• Sustainable Energy Europe Campaign
• CONCERTO
• ManagEnergy
• Intelligent Energy – Europe (IEE)
• U4energy is an initiative funded under the IEE programme to improve energy consumption in schools and their local communities.
• Eco-innovation

In July 2015, the French parliament passed a comprehensive energy and climate law that includes a mandatory renewable energy target requiring 40% of national electricity production to come from renewable sources by 2030.[14][15]

In 2016, renewable electricity accounted for 19.6% of France's total domestic power consumption, of which 12.2% was provided by hydroelectricity, 4.3% by wind power, 1.7% by solar power and 1.4% by bio energy.[16]

In 2014, Germany's share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption increased by 1.4% to 13.8%. In 2004, renewables accounted for only 5.8% or about the same share as for the Netherlands in 2014 (5.5%).[18]

In 2016 net generated electricity from renewable sources accounted for about 33.9%. Compared to the previous year, biomass, solar and wind changed their production by +4.8%, -3.1% and -1.7%, respectively, while weather permitting hydro power decreased by 10.3%. Wind and solar combined generated more energy than nuclear in 2016 (see pie-chart). Nuclear decreased production by 7.7%, while electricity generation from natural gas, brown and hard coal changed by +50.2%, -3.3% and -5.8%, respectively.[17]

In 2014, 38.2% of Italian electric energy consumption came from renewable sources (in 2005 this value was 15.4%), covering 16.2% of the total energy consumption of the country (5.3% in 2005).[19]

Solar energy production accounted for almost 9% of the total electric consumption in the country in 2014, making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world.[19]

In 2016 Renewable energy in Lithuania constituted 28% of the country's overall electricity generation. The majority of renewable energy in Lithuania is from biofuel. The principal source of electricity from renewable resources is from hydropower.[20]

Lithuania has many yet undeveloped renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal energy, municipal waste, and biomass. The amount of biomass per capita in Lithuania is one of the highest in the European Union and it is estimated that in 2020 Lithuania will be the first in the EU according to the quantity of available biomass for biofuel production. The projected production of biofuels by 2020 is 0.25 tons per capita.[21]

In 2010, more than 50% of all yearly electricity consumption in Portugal was generated from renewable energy sources.[22] The most important generation sources were hydroelectric (30%) and wind power (18%), with bioenergy (5%) and photovoltaic solar power (0.5%) accounting for the rest. In 2001, the Portuguese government launched a new energy policy instrument – the E4 Programme (Energy Efficiency and Endogenous Energies), consisting of a set of multiple, diversified measures aimed at promoting a consistent, integrated approach to energy supply and demand. By promoting energy efficiency and the use of endogenous (renewable) energy sources, the programme seeks to upgrade the competitiveness of the Portuguese economy and to modernize the country's social fabric, while simultaneously preserving the environment by reducing gas emissions, especially the CO₂ responsible for climatic change. As a result, in the five years between 2005 and 2010, energy production from renewable sources increased 28%.[23]

In January 2014, 91% of the monthly needed Portuguese electricity consumption was generated by renewable sources,[24][25] although the real figure stands at 78%, as 14% was exported.

The renewable energy produced in Portugal fell from 55.5% of the total energy produced in 2016 to 41.8% in 2017, due to the drought of 2017, which severely affected the production of hydro electricity.[26] The sources of the renewable energy that was produced in Portugal in 2017 were Wind power with 21.6% of the total (up from 20.7% in 2016), Hydro power with 13.3% (down from 28.1% in 2016), Bioenergy with 5.1% (same as in 2016), Solar power with 1.6% (up from 1.4% in 2016), Geothermal energy with 0.4% (up from 0.3% in 2016) and a small amount of Wave power in the Azores. 24% of the energy produced in the Azores is geothermal.[27][28][29][30][31]

Portugal had the second largest photovoltaic power station in the world,[32] which was completed in December 2008. The complex, called Amareleja photovoltaic power station, covers an area of 250-hectare. The 46-megawatt solar power plant produces enough electricity for 30,000 homes and saves more than 89,400 tons a year in greenhouse gas emissions. Also in production since January 2007, the Serpa solar power plant with an installed capacity 11MW, covers an area of 60-hectare, produces enough energy for 8,000 homes and saves more than 30,000 tons a year in greenhouse gas emissions. These solar parks are approximately 30 km apart.

In 1999, Central de Ondas do Pico, one of the first Wave power centers in the world, started to work in the Pico Island, in the Azores. It has a capacity of 400 KW.[33]

Spain as a whole has the target of generating 30% of its electricity needs from renewable energy sources by 2010, with half of that amount coming from wind power. In 2006, 20% of the total electricity demand was already produced with renewable energy sources, and in January 2009 the total electricity demand produced with renewable energy sources reached 34.8%.[34]

Some regions of Spain lead Europe in the use of renewable energy technology and plan to reach 100% renewable energy generation in few years. Castilla y León and Galicia, in particular, are near this goal. In 2006 they fulfilled about 70% of their total electricity demand from renewable energy sources.

Through the use of nuclear power, two autonomous communities in Spain managed to fulfill their total 2006 electricity demand free of CO₂ emissions: Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha.[35]

In 2005 Spain became the first country in the world to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second in the world (after Israel) to require the installation of solar hot water systems.[36]

Biomass is material from plants or animals such as wheat stalks, yard waste, corn cobs, manure, wood or sewage. Wood and other solid biofuels supply the largest proportion of renewable energy in the EU at 64% of primary renewable energy.[37] Biomass is burned both for heating and electrical generation, often in the form of pellet fuel.

Biofuels offer an alternative plant-based solution to rising problems regarding geological fuel sources. Chemically, biofuels are alcohols produced by fermenting raw materials from starch and sugars. While complete substitution is not yet common in Europe, countries like Germany have been using E10 fuel consisting of 10% ethanol since 2011. E10 fuels have replaced the previous E5 fuel, containing 5% ethanol.

Although this may seem like a slight increase in ethanol use, this progression reflects a more progressive Europe as improvements are being made based primarily upon environmentally conscious efforts, rather than geopolitical or economic pressures.

The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.

European Geothermal Energy Council (EGEC) promotes geothermal energy in the European Union.

Share of wind power in total electricity demand in Europe in 2017

  > 40%

  20-30%

  10-20%

  < 10%

Research from a wide variety of sources in various European countries shows that support for wind power is consistently about 80% among the general public.[38]

Installed Wind power capacity in the European Union totalled 93,957 megawatts (MW) in 2011, enough to supply 6.3% of the EU's electricity. 9,616 MW of wind power was installed in 2011 alone, representing 21.4% of new power capacity. The EU wind industry has had an average annual growth of 15.6% over the last 17 years (1995-2011).[39]

A 2009 European Environment Agency report, entitled Europe's onshore and offshore wind energy potential confirms wind energy could power Europe many times over.[40] The report highlights wind power's potential in 2020 as three times greater than Europe's expected electricity demand, rising to a factor of seven by 2030.[41] An EWEA report overviewing 2009 data estimated that 230 gigawatts (GW) of wind capacity will be installed in Europe by 2020, consisting of 190 GW onshore and 40 GW offshore. This would produce 14-17% of the EU's electricity, avoiding 333 million tonnes of CO2 per year and saving Europe €28 billion a year in avoided fuel costs.[42]

In 2018 wind energy generated enough electricity to meet 14% of the EU's electricity demand. Denmark had the highest share of wind (41%) in Europe, followed by Ireland (28%) and Portugal (24%). Germany, Spain and the UK follow with 21%, 19% and 18% respectively. Out of the EU's total electricity consumption of 2,645 TWh in 2018, onshore wind contributed 309 TWh (12%) and offshore wind contributed 53 TWh (2%), bringing the total contribution of wind energy to 362 TWh (14%). The energy comes from a total onshore wind capacity of 160 GW and a total offshore wind capacity of 18.5 GW, with an average capacity factor of 24%.[43]

Description: PV solar power are solar modules that are used to generate electricity.

European PV deployment in 'watts per capita' from 1992 to 2014.

<0.1, n/a   0.1-1   1-10   10-50

50-100   100-150   150-200   200-300

300-450   450–600

2012 17.2 GW of PV capacity were connected to the grid in Europe, compared to 22.4 GW in 2011; Europe still accounted for the predominant share of the global PV market, with 55% of all new capacity in 2012.[44]

2004 79% of all European capacity was in Germany, where 794 MWp had been installed. The European Commission anticipated that Germany may have installed around 4,500 MWp by 2010.[45]

2002, The world production of photovoltaic modules surpassed 550 MW, of which more than the 50% was produced in the EU. Within 15 years even a small country in Europe might expect to exceed this amount in domestic installations.

Description: CSV power can generate either heat or electricity according to the type used. One advantage of concentrated solar power (CSP) is the ability to include thermal energy storage to provide power up to 24 hours a day.[46]

2015 The first commercial application of a new form of CSP called STEM will take place in Sicily .[47] This has generated considerable academic and commercial interest internationally for off-grid applications to produce 24 hour industrial scale power for mining sites and remote communities in Italy, other parts of Europe, Australia, Asia, North Africa and Latin America. STEM uses fluidized silica sand as a thermal storage and heat transfer medium for CSP systems. It has been developed by Salerno-based Magaldi Industries.

2012 By year end in the European Union, 2,114 MWp had been installed, mainly in Spain. Gemasolar, in Spain, was the first to provide 24‑hour power.[48]

Description: Solar heating is the usage of solar energy to provide space or water heating.

2016 At present the EU is second after China in the installations.

2010 If all EU countries used solar thermal as enthusiastically as the Austrians, the EU's installed capacity would already be 91 GWth (130 million m² today, far beyond the target of 100 million m² by 2010, set by the White Paper in 1997).

2008 The research efforts and infrastructure needed to supply 50% of the energy for space and water heating and cooling across Europe using solar thermal energy was set out under the aegis of the European Solar Thermal Technology Platform (ESTTP).[49] Published in late December 2008, more than 100 experts developed the strategic research agenda (SRA),[50] which includes a deployment roadmap showing the non-technological framework conditions that will enable this ambitious goal to be reached by 2050.[51]

2007 ESTIF's minimum target is to produce solar heating equivalent to 5.600.000 tons of oil (by 2020). A more ambitious, but feasible, target is 73 million tons of oil per year (by 2020)[52]

2005 Worldwide usage was 88 GW_thermal . Growth potential is enormous. Solar heating in the EU was equivalent to more than 686.000 tons of oil.

Description:Wave power is used to generate electricity.

Pelamis wave energy converter

2008 The world's first commercial wave farm is located at the Aguçadora Wave Park near Póvoa de Varzim in Portugal. The farm which uses three Pelamis P-750 machines was officially opened[53] in by the Portuguese minister for the economy.[54]

2007 Funding for a wave farm in Scotland using four Pelamis machines was announced on 20 February by the Scottish Executive. The funding of just over £4 million is part of a £13 million funding package for marine power in Scotland. The farm, is to be located at the European Marine Test Centre (EMEC) off the coast of Orkney and will have an installed capacity of 3MW.[55]

The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, FCH JU, is a public private partnership supporting research, technological development and demonstration activities in fuel cell and hydrogen energy technologies in Europe. Its aim is to accelerate the market introduction of these technologies. The HyFLEET:CUTE is a project bringing together many partners from industry, government, academic and consulting organisations. It is intended that 47 hydrogen powered buses will operate in regular public transport service in 10 cities on three continents. Many of the HyFLEET:CUTE project partners have been involved in previous hydrogen transport projects, most notably the CUTE, ECTOS and STEP projects.

The renewable energy industry have offered new work opportunities in the EU during 2005–2009.

Employment in the renewable energy industry has however fallen every year since 2011, reaching 34,300 jobs in 2016, according to annual data from the International Renewable Energy Agency.[57] IRENA says economic crises and adverse policy conditions led to reduced investments in renewable energy in the EU.[58]

In 2012, the use of intermittent renewable energy caused, according to the German newspaper Der Spiegel, increasing electricity prices and grid instability induced power outages,[59] created by renewable energy usage. It is also claimed by German heavy industry spokesmen that this has forced their industries to close, move overseas, and resulted in the loss of German heavy industry jobs.[60]

In 2010 renewables avoided €30bn in imported fuel costs. In 2010 EU supported renewable energy with €26bn.[61]

As of the end of 2013, cumulative capacity of solar PV accounted for almost 79 gigawatts and generated more than 80 terawatt-hours in the European Union. Including non-EU countries, a total of 81.5 GW had been installed. Although Europe has lost its leadership in solar deployment, the continent still accounts for about 59 percent of global installed photovoltaics. Solar PV covered 3 percent of the electricity demand and 6 percent of the peak electricity demand in 2013. Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems account for more than 99 percent of the overall capacity, while stand-alone photovoltaic power system have become insignificant.[73]

2013 - photovoltaic Barometer Report - PV Capacity in the European Union
Country	Added 2014 (MW)			Total 2014 (MW)				Generation 2014
	off- grid	on- grid	Capacity	off- grid	on- grid	Capacity	Watt per capita	in GWh	in %
Austria	–	140.0	140.0	4.5	766.0	770.5	90.6	766.0	–
Belgium	–	65.2	65.2	0.1	3,105.2	3,105.3	277.2	2,768.0	–
Bulgaria	–	1.3	1.3	0.7	1,019.7	1,019.8	140.8	1,244.5	–
Croatia	0.2	14.0	14.2	0.7	33.5	34.2	8.1	35.3	–
Cyprus	0.2	29.7	30.0	1.1	63.6	44.8	75.5	104.0	–
Czech Republic	–	–	–	0.4	2,060.6	2,061.0	196.1	2,121.7	–
Denmark	0.1	29.0	29.1	1.5	600.0	601.5	106.9	557.0	–
Estonia	–	–	–	0.1	–	0.2	0.1	0.6	–
Finland	–	–	–	10.0	0.2	10.2	1.9	5.9	–
France	0.1	974.9	975.0	10.8	5,589.2	5,600.0	87.6	5,500.0	–
Germany	–	1,899.0	1,899.0	65.0	38,236.0	38,301.0	474.1	34,930.0	–
Greece	–	16.9	16.9	7.0	2,595.8	2,602.8	236.8	3,856.0	–
Hungary	0.1	3.2	3.3	0.7	37.5	38.2	3.9	26.8	–
Ireland	–	–	0.1	0.9	0.2	1.1	0.2	0.7	–
Italy	1.0	384.0	385.0	13.0	18,437.0	18,450.0	303.5	23,299.0	–
Latvia	–	–	–	–	1.5	1.5	0.8	n.a.	–
Lithuania	–	–	–	0.1	68.0	68.1	23.1	73.0	–
Luxembourg	–	15.0	15.0	–	110.0	110.0	200.1	120.0	–
Malta	–	26.0	26.0	–	54.2	54.2	127.5	57.8	–
Netherlands	–	361.0	361.0	5.0	1,095.0	1,100.0	65.4	800.0	–
Poland	0.5	19.7	20.2	2.9	21.5	24.4	0.6	19.2	–
Portugal	1.2	115.0	116.2	5.0	414.0	419.0	40.2	631.0	–
Romania	–	270.5	270.5	–	1,292.6	1,292.6	64.8	1,355.2	–
Slovakia	–	2.0	2.0	0.1	590.0	590.1	109.0	590.0	–
Slovenia	–	7.7	7.7	0.1	255.9	256.0	124.2	244.6	–
Spain	0.3	21.0	21.3	25.	4,761.8	4,787.3	102.9	8,211.0	–
Sweden	1.1	35.1	36.2	9.5	69.9	79.4	8.2	71.5	–
United Kingdom	–	2,448.0	2,448.0	2.3	5,228.0	5,230.3	81.3	3,931.0	–
European Union	4.9	6,878.4	6,883.3	167.1	86,506.8	86,673.9	171.5	91,319.8	–
Country	off- grid	on- grid	Capacity	off- grid	on- grid	Capacity	Watt per capita	in GWh	in %
	Added 2014 (MW)			Total 2014 (MW)				Generation 2014

Source: EUROBSER'VER (Observatoire des énergies renouvelables) Photovoltaic Barometer - installations 2014[74]

• Joanna Krzeminska, Are Support Schemes for Renewable Energies Compatible with Competition Objectives? An Assessment of National and Community Rules, Yearbook of European Environmental Law (Oxford University Press), Volume VII, Nov. 2007, p. 125

• 11 September 1999, The Guardian: Renewable energy across Europe
• 23 March 2007, The BBC: EU environmental achievements by Commissioner Dimas.

• European Renewable Energy Council
• European Forum for Renewable Energy Sources "Members of Parliament for a Sustainable Energy Future"
• European Federation of Regional Energy and Environment Agencies (FEDARENE).
• European Future Energy Forum
• European Commission-Energy