Giraffe

The giraffe is one of only two living genera of the family Giraffidae in the order Artiodactyla, the other being the okapi. The family was once much more extensive, with over 10 fossil genera described. Their closest known relatives may have been the extinct deer-like climacocerids. They, together with the family Antilocapridae (whose only extant species is the pronghorn), have been placed in the superfamily Giraffoidea. These animals may have evolved from the extinct family Palaeomerycidae which might also have been the ancestor of deer.[10]

The elongation of the neck appears to have started early in the giraffe lineage. Comparisons between giraffes and their ancient relatives suggest that vertebrae close to the skull lengthened earlier, followed by lengthening of vertebrae further down.[11] One early giraffid ancestor was Canthumeryx which has been dated variously to have lived 25–20 million years ago (mya), 17–15 mya or 18–14.3 mya and whose deposits have been found in Libya. This animal was medium-sized, slender and antelope-like. Giraffokeryx appeared 15 mya in the Indian subcontinent and resembled an okapi or a small giraffe, and had a longer neck and similar ossicones.[10] Giraffokeryx may have shared a clade with more massively built giraffids like Sivatherium and Bramatherium.[11]

The extinct giraffid Samotherium (middle) in comparison with the okapi (below) and giraffe. The anatomy of Samotherium appears to have shown a transition to a giraffe-like neck.[12]

Giraffids like Palaeotragus, Shansitherium and Samotherium appeared 14 mya and lived throughout Africa and Eurasia. These animals had bare ossicones and small cranial sinuses and were longer with broader skulls.[10][11] Paleotragus resembled the okapi and may have been its ancestor.[10] Others find that the okapi lineage diverged earlier, before Giraffokeryx.[11] Samotherium was a particularly important transitional fossil in the giraffe lineage as its cervical vertebrae was intermediate in length and structure between a modern giraffe and an okapi, and was more vertical than the okapi's.[12] Bohlinia, which first appeared in southeastern Europe and lived 9–7 mya was likely a direct ancestor of the giraffe. Bohlinia closely resembled modern giraffes, having a long neck and legs and similar ossicones and dentition.[10]

Bohlinia entered China and northern India in response to climate change. From there, the genus Giraffa evolved and, around 7 mya, entered Africa.[13] Further climate changes caused the extinction of the Asian giraffes, while the African giraffes survived and radiated into several new species. Living giraffes appear to have arisen around 1 mya in eastern Africa during the Pleistocene.[10] Some biologists suggest the modern giraffes descended from G. jumae;[14] others find G. gracilis a more likely candidate.[10] G. jumae was larger and more heavily built while G. gracilis was smaller and more lightly built. The main driver for the evolution of the giraffes is believed to have been the changes from extensive forests to more open habitats, which began 8 mya.[10] During this time, tropical plants disappeared and were replaced by arid C4 plants, and a dry savannah emerged across eastern and northern Africa and western India.[15][16] Some researchers have hypothesised that this new habitat coupled with a different diet, including acacia species, may have exposed giraffe ancestors to toxins that caused higher mutation rates and a higher rate of evolution.[17] The coat patterns of modern giraffes may also have coincided with these habitat changes. Asian giraffes are hypothesised to have had more okapi-like colourations.[10]

The giraffe genome is around 2.9 billion base pairs in length compared to the 3.3 billion base pairs of the okapi. Of the proteins in giraffe and okapi genes, 19.4% are identical. The two species are equally distantly related to cattle, suggesting the giraffe's unique characteristics are not because of faster evolution. The divergence of giraffe and okapi lineages dates to around 11.5 mya. A small group of regulatory genes in the giraffe appear to be responsible for the animal's stature and associated circulatory adaptations.[18]

"Approximate geographic ranges, fur patterns, and phylogenetic relationships between some giraffe subspecies based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Colored dots on the map represent sampling localities. The phylogenetic tree is a maximum-likelihood phylogram based on samples from 266 giraffes. Asterisks along branches correspond to node values of more than 90% bootstrap support. Stars at branch tips identify paraphyletic haplotypes found in Maasai and reticulated giraffes".[19]

The IUCN and most giraffe scientists currently recognise only one species of giraffe with nine subspecies.[20][21] In 2001, a two-species taxonomy was proposed.[22] A 2007 study on the genetics of giraffes, suggested six species.[19] A 2011 study using detailed analyses of the morphology of giraffes, and application of the phylogenetic species concept, described eight species of living giraffes.[23] A 2016 study also concluded that living giraffes consist of multiple species. The researchers suggested the existence of four species, which have not exchanged genetic information between each other for 1 to 2 million years.[24] Since then, a response to this publication has been published, highlighting seven problems in data interpretation, and concludes "the conclusions should not be accepted unconditionally".[25]

A 2020 study showed that depending on the method chosen, different taxonomic hypotheses recognizing from two to six species can be considered for the genus Giraffa.[26] That study also found that multi-species coalescent methods can lead to taxonomic over-splitting, as those methods delimit geographic structures rather than species. The three-species hypothesis, which recognises G. camelopardalis, G. giraffa, and G. tippelskirchi, is highly supported by phylogenetic analyses and also corroborated by most population genetic and multi-species coalescent analyses.[26]

G. attica, also extinct, was formerly considered part of Giraffa but was reclassified as Bohlinia attica in 1929. There are also seven extinct species of giraffe, listed as the following:

• †Giraffa gracilis
• †Giraffa jumae
• †Giraffa priscilla
• †Giraffa punjabiensis
• †Giraffa pygmaea
• †Giraffa sivalensis
• †Giraffa stillei

Species and subspecies of giraffe

One species taxonomy[21][20]	Three species taxonomy[26]	Four species taxonomy[24]	Eight species taxonomy[23]	Description	Image
Giraffe (G. camelopardalis)[21][20]	Northern giraffe (G. camelopardalis)	Northern giraffe (G. camelopardalis)	Kordofan giraffe (G. antiquorum)[27]	The Kordofan giraffe (G. c. antiquorum) has a distribution which includes southern Chad, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon, and the northeastern DR Congo.[21] Populations in Cameroon were formerly included in G. c. peralta, but this was incorrect.[28] Compared to the Nubian giraffe, this subspecies has smaller and more irregular spotting patterns. Its spots may be found below the hocks and the insides of the legs. A median lump is present in males.[29]:51–52 Some 2,000 are believed to remain in the wild.[21] Considerable confusion has existed over the status of this subspecies and G. c. peralta in zoos. In 2007, all alleged G. c. peralta in European zoos were shown to be, in fact, G. c. antiquorum.[28] With this correction, about 65 are kept in zoos.[30] The formerly recognised subspecies G. c. congoesis is now considered part of the Kordofan giraffe.
			Nubian giraffe including Rothschild's giraffe (G. camelopardalis)[20] also known as Baringo giraffe or Ugandan giraffe	The Nubian giraffe (G. c. camelopardalis), is found in eastern South Sudan and southwestern Ethiopia, in addition to Kenya and Uganda.[21] It has sharply defined chestnut-coloured spots surrounded by mostly white lines, while undersides lack spotting.[31] The median lump is particularly developed in the male.[29]:51 Around 2,150 are thought to remain in the wild, with another 1,500 individuals belonging to the Rothschild's ecotype.[21] With the addition of Rothschild's giraffe to the Nubian subspecies, the Nubian giraffe is very common in captivity, although the original phenotype is rare- a group is kept at Al Ain Zoo in the United Arab Emirates.[32] In 2003, this group numbered 14.[33] Rothschild's giraffe (G. c. rothschildi) may be an ecotype of G. camelopardalis. Its range includes parts of Uganda and Kenya.[21] Its presence in South Sudan is uncertain.[34] This giraffe has large dark patches that usually have complete margins, but may also have sharp edges. The dark spots may also have paler radiating lines or streaks within them. Spotting does not often reach below the hocks and almost never to the hooves. This ecotype may also develop five "horns".[29]:53 Around 1,500 individuals believed to remain in the wild,[21] and more than 450 are kept in zoos.[30] According to genetic analysis circa September 2016, it is conspecific with the Nubian giraffe (G. c. camelopardalis).[24]
			West African giraffe (G. peralta),[35][36] also known as Niger giraffe or Nigerian giraffe	The West African giraffe (G. c. peralta) is endemic to southwestern Niger.[21] This animal has a lighter pelage than other subspecies,[37]:322 with red lobe-shaped blotches that reach below the hocks. The ossicones are more erect than in other subspecies and males have well-developed median lumps.[29]:52–53 It is the most endangered subspecies within Giraffa, with 400 individuals remaining in the wild.[21] Giraffes in Cameroon were formerly believed to belong to this species, but are actually G. c. antiquorum.[28] This error resulted in some confusion over its status in zoos, but in 2007, it was established that all "G. c. peralta" kept in European zoos actually are G. c. antiquorum. The same 2007 study found that the West African giraffe was more closely related to Rothschild's giraffe than the Kordofan and its ancestor may have migrated from eastern to northern Africa and then to its current range with the development of the Sahara Desert. At its largest, Lake Chad may have acted as a barrier between the West African and Kordofan giraffes during the Holocene (before 5000 BC).[28]
		Reticulated giraffe (G. reticulata),[38] also known as Somali giraffe		The reticulated giraffe (G. c. reticulata) is native to northeastern Kenya, southern Ethiopia, and Somalia.[21] Its distinctive coat pattern consists of sharp-edged, reddish-brown polygonal patches divided by a network of thin white lines. Spots may or may not extend below the hocks, and a median lump is present in males.[29]:53 An estimated 8,660 individuals remain in the wild,[21] and based on International Species Information System records, more than 450 are kept in zoos.[30]
	Southern giraffe (G. giraffa)	Southern giraffe (G. giraffa)	Angolan giraffe (G. angolensis), also known as Namibian giraffe	The Angolan giraffe (G. c. angolensis) is found in northern Namibia, southwestern Zambia, Botswana, and western Zimbabwe.[21] A 2009 genetic study on this subspecies suggested the northern Namib Desert and Etosha National Park populations form a separate subspecies.[39] This subspecies has large brown blotches with edges that are either somewhat notched or have angular extensions. The spotting pattern extends throughout the legs but not the upper part of the face. The neck and rump patches tend to be fairly small. The subspecies also has a white ear patch.[29]:51 About 13,000 animals are estimated to remain in the wild;[21] and about 20 are kept in zoos.[30]
			South African giraffe (G. giraffa)[40] also known as Cape giraffe	The South African giraffe (G. c. giraffa) is found in northern South Africa, southern Botswana, southern Zimbabwe, and southwestern Mozambique.[21] It has dark, somewhat rounded patches "with some fine projections" on a tawny background colour. The spots extend down the legs and get smaller as they do. The median lump of males is less developed.[29]:52 A maximum of 31,500 are estimated to remain in the wild,[21] and around 45 are kept in zoos.[30]
	Masai giraffe (G. tippelskirchi)	Masai giraffe (G. tippelskirchi)	Masai giraffe (G. tippelskirchi),[41] also known as Kilimanjaro giraffe	The Masai giraffe (G. c. tippelskirchi) can be found in central and southern Kenya and in Tanzania.[21] It has distinctive, irregular, jagged, star-like blotches which extend to the hooves. A median lump is usually present in males.[29]:54[42] A total of 32,550 are thought to remain in the wild,[21] and about 100 are kept in zoos.[30]
			Thornicroft's giraffe ("G. thornicrofti", after Harry Scott Thornicroft),[43] also known as Luangwa giraffe, or Rhodesian giraffe	Thornicroft's giraffe (G. c. thornicrofti) is restricted to the Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia.[21] The patches are notched and somewhat star-shaped, and may or may not extend across the legs. The median lump of males is underdeveloped.[29]:54 No more than 550 remain in the wild,[21] with none kept in zoos.[30]

Photo illustrating the bony bumps that form on the ossicones and median lump of some mature giraffes

Both sexes have prominent horn-like structures called ossicones, which are formed from ossified cartilage, covered in skin and fused to the skull at the parietal bones.[42] Being vascularized, the ossicones may have a role in thermoregulation,[53] and are also used in combat between males.[58] Appearance is a reliable guide to the sex or age of a giraffe: the ossicones of females and young are thin and display tufts of hair on top, whereas those of adult males end in knobs and tend to be bald on top.[42] Also, a median lump, which is more prominent in males, emerges at the front of the skull.[7] Males develop calcium deposits that form bumps on their skulls as they age.[51] A giraffe's skull is lightened by multiple sinuses.[49]^:70 However, as males age, their skulls become heavier and more club-like, helping them become more dominant in combat.[42] The upper jaw has a grooved palate and lacks front teeth.[50]^:26 The giraffe's molars have a rough surface.[50]^:27

Right hind leg of a Masai giraffe at San Diego Zoo

The front and back legs of a giraffe are about the same length. The radius and ulna of the front legs are articulated by the carpus, which, while structurally equivalent to the human wrist, functions as a knee.[59] It appears that a suspensory ligament allows the lanky legs to support the animal's great weight.[60] The foot of the giraffe reaches a diameter of 30 cm (12 in), and the hoof is 15 cm (5.9 in) high in males and 10 cm (3.9 in) in females.[50]^:36 The rear of each hoof is low and the fetlock is close to the ground, allowing the foot to provide additional support to the animal's weight.[7] Giraffes lack dewclaws and interdigital glands. The giraffe's pelvis, though relatively short, has an ilium that is outspread at the upper ends.[7]

A giraffe has only two gaits: walking and galloping. Walking is done by moving the legs on one side of the body at the same time, then doing the same on the other side.[42] When galloping, the hind legs move around the front legs before the latter move forward,[51] and the tail will curl up.[42] The animal relies on the forward and backward motions of its head and neck to maintain balance and the counter momentum while galloping.[37]^:327–29 The giraffe can reach a sprint speed of up to 60 km/h (37 mph),[61] and can sustain 50 km/h (31 mph) for several kilometres.[62]

A giraffe rests by lying with its body on top of its folded legs.[37]^:329 To lie down, the animal kneels on its front legs and then lowers the rest of its body. To get back up, it first gets on its knees and spreads its hind legs to raise its hindquarters. It then straightens its front legs. With each step, the animal swings its head.[50]^:31 In captivity, the giraffe sleeps intermittently around 4.6 hours per day, mostly at night.[63] It usually sleeps lying down; however, standing sleeps have been recorded, particularly in older individuals. Intermittent short "deep sleep" phases while lying are characterised by the giraffe bending its neck backwards and resting its head on the hip or thigh, a position believed to indicate paradoxical sleep.[63] If the giraffe wants to bend down to drink, it either spreads its front legs or bends its knees.[42] Giraffes would probably not be competent swimmers as their long legs would be highly cumbersome in the water,[64] although they could possibly float.[65] When swimming, the thorax would be weighed down by the front legs, making it difficult for the animal to move its neck and legs in harmony[64][65] or keep its head above the surface.[64]

The giraffe has an extremely elongated neck, which can be up to 2–2.4 m (6.6–7.9 ft) in length, accounting for much of the animal's vertical height.[45][46][50]^:29[66] The long neck results from a disproportionate lengthening of the cervical vertebrae, not from the addition of more vertebrae. Each cervical vertebra is over 28 cm (11 in) long.[49]^:71 They comprise 52–54 per cent of the length of the giraffe's vertebral column, compared with the 27–33 percent typical of similar large ungulates, including the giraffe's closest living relative, the okapi.[17] This elongation largely takes place after birth, perhaps because giraffe mothers would have a difficult time giving birth to young with the same neck proportions as adults.[67] The giraffe's head and neck are held up by large muscles and a strengthened nuchal ligament, which are anchored by long dorsal spines on the anterior thoracic vertebrae, giving the animal a hump.[7][68]

Adult male reticulated giraffe feeding high up on an acacia, in Kenya

The giraffe's neck vertebrae have ball and socket joints.[49]^:71 In particular, the atlas–axis joint (C1 and C2) allows the animal to tilt its head vertically and reach more branches with the tongue.[50]^:29 The point of articulation between the cervical and thoracic vertebrae of giraffes is shifted to lie between the first and second thoracic vertebrae (T1 and T2), unlike most other ruminants where the articulation is between the seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and T1.[17][67] This allows C7 to contribute directly to increased neck length and has given rise to the suggestion that T1 is actually C8, and that giraffes have added an extra cervical vertebra.[68] However, this proposition is not generally accepted, as T1 has other morphological features, such as an articulating rib, deemed diagnostic of thoracic vertebrae, and because exceptions to the mammalian limit of seven cervical vertebrae are generally characterised by increased neurological anomalies and maladies.[17]

There are several hypotheses regarding the evolutionary origin and maintenance of elongation in giraffe necks.[58] The "competing browsers hypothesis" was originally suggested by Charles Darwin and challenged only recently. It suggests that competitive pressure from smaller browsers, such as kudu, steenbok and impala, encouraged the elongation of the neck, as it enabled giraffes to reach food that competitors could not. This advantage is real, as giraffes can and do feed up to 4.5 m (15 ft) high, while even quite large competitors, such as kudu, can feed up to only about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high.[69] There is also research suggesting that browsing competition is intense at lower levels, and giraffes feed more efficiently (gaining more leaf biomass with each mouthful) high in the canopy.[70][71] However, scientists disagree about just how much time giraffes spend feeding at levels beyond the reach of other browsers,[14][58][69][72] and a 2010 study found that adult giraffes with longer necks actually suffered higher mortality rates under drought conditions than their shorter-necked counterparts. This study suggests that maintaining a longer neck requires more nutrients, which puts longer-necked giraffes at risk during a food shortage.[73]

Another theory, the sexual selection hypothesis, proposes that the long necks evolved as a secondary sexual characteristic, giving males an advantage in "necking" contests (see below) to establish dominance and obtain access to sexually receptive females.[14] In support of this theory, necks are longer and heavier for males than females of the same age,[14][58] and the former do not employ other forms of combat.[14] However, one objection is that it fails to explain why female giraffes also have long necks.[74] It has also been proposed that the neck serves to give the animal greater vigilance.[75][76]

Scheme of path of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in giraffe

In mammals, the left recurrent laryngeal nerve is longer than the right; in the giraffe it is over 30 cm (12 in) longer. These nerves are longer in the giraffe than in any other living animal;[77] the left nerve is over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long.[78] Each nerve cell in this path begins in the brainstem and passes down the neck along the vagus nerve, then branches off into the recurrent laryngeal nerve which passes back up the neck to the larynx. Thus, these nerve cells have a length of nearly 5 m (16 ft) in the largest giraffes.[77] The structure of a giraffe's brain resembles that of domestic cattle.[50]^:31 It is kept cool by evaporative heat loss in the nasal passages.[53] The shape of the skeleton gives the giraffe a small lung volume relative to its mass. Its long neck gives it a large amount of dead space, in spite of its narrow windpipe. These factors increase the resistance to airflow. Nevertheless, the animal can still supply enough oxygen to its tissues and it can increase its respiratory rate and oxygen diffusion when running.[79]

Reticulated giraffe bending down to drink, in Kenya. The circulatory system is adapted to deal with blood flow rushing down its neck.

The circulatory system of the giraffe has several adaptations for its great height. Its heart, which can weigh more than 11 kg (25 lb) and measures about 60 cm (2 ft) long, must generate approximately double the blood pressure required for a human to maintain blood flow to the brain. As such, the wall of the heart can be as thick as 7.5 cm (3.0 in).[51] Giraffes have unusually high heart rates for their size, at 150 beats per minute.[49]^:76 When the animal lowers its head the blood rushes down fairly unopposed and a rete mirabile in the upper neck, with its large cross sectional area, prevents excess blood flow to the brain. When it raises again, the blood vessels constrict and direct blood into the brain so the animal does not faint.[80] The jugular veins contain several (most commonly seven) valves to prevent blood flowing back into the head from the inferior vena cava and right atrium while the head is lowered.[81] Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them. To solve this problem, the skin of the lower legs is thick and tight, preventing too much blood from pouring into them.[43]

Giraffes have oesophageal muscles that are unusually strong to allow regurgitation of food from the stomach up the neck and into the mouth for rumination.[49]^:78 They have four chambered stomachs, as in all ruminants, and the first chamber has adapted to their specialized diet.[7] The intestines of an adult giraffe measure more than 70 m (230 ft) in length and have a relatively small ratio of small to large intestine.[82] The liver of the giraffe is small and compact.[49]^:76 A gallbladder is generally present during fetal life, but it may disappear before birth.[7][83][84]

A Masai giraffe extending its tongue to feed, in Tanzania. Its tongue, lips and palate are tough enough to deal with sharp thorns in trees.

Giraffes usually inhabit savannahs and open woodlands. They prefer Acacieae, Commiphora, Combretum and open Terminalia woodlands over denser environments like Brachystegia woodlands.[37]^:322 The Angolan giraffe can be found in desert environments.[85] Giraffes browse on the twigs of trees, preferring trees of the subfamily Acacieae and the genera Commiphora and Terminalia,[4] which are important sources of calcium and protein to sustain the giraffe's growth rate.[10] They also feed on shrubs, grass and fruit.[37]^:324 A giraffe eats around 34 kg (75 lb) of foliage daily.[42] When stressed, giraffes may chew the bark off branches. Although herbivorous, the giraffe has been known to visit carcasses and lick dried meat off bones.[37]^:325

During the wet season, food is abundant and giraffes are more spread out, while during the dry season, they gather around the remaining evergreen trees and bushes.[4] Mothers tend to feed in open areas, presumably to make it easier to detect predators, although this may reduce their feeding efficiency.[72] As a ruminant, the giraffe first chews its food, then swallows it for processing and then visibly passes the half-digested cud up the neck and back into the mouth to chew again.[49]^:78–79 It is common for a giraffe to salivate while feeding.[50]^:27 The giraffe requires less food than many other herbivores because the foliage it eats has more concentrated nutrients and it has a more efficient digestive system.[4] The animal's faeces come in the form of small pellets.[7] When it has access to water, a giraffe drinks at intervals no longer than three days.[42]

Giraffes have a great effect on the trees that they feed on, delaying the growth of young trees for some years and giving "waistlines" to trees that are too tall. Feeding is at its highest during the first and last hours of daytime. Between these hours, giraffes mostly stand and ruminate. Rumination is the dominant activity during the night, when it is mostly done lying down.[42]

Gathering of female South African giraffes in Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa. These animals commonly gather in herds.

Giraffes are usually found in groups that vary in size and composition according to ecological, anthropogenic, temporal, and social factors.[86] Traditionally, the composition of these groups had been described as open and ever-changing.[87] For research purposes, a "group" has been defined as "a collection of individuals that are less than a kilometre apart and moving in the same general direction."[88] More recent studies have found that giraffes have long-term social associations and may form groups or pairs based on kinship, sex or other factors, and these groups regularly associate with one another in larger communities or sub-communities within a fission–fusion society.[89][90][91][92] The number of giraffes in a group can range from 1 up to 66 individuals.[92][86]

Giraffe groups tend to be sex-segregated[92] although mixed-sex groups made of adult females and young males are known to occur.[88] Female groups may be matrilineally related,[92] but social relationships can be disrupted by proximity to humans.[89] In general, females are more selective than males in who they associate with in regards to individuals of the same sex.[91] Particularly stable giraffe groups are those made of mothers and their young,[88] which can last weeks or months.[93] Young males also form groups and will engage in playfights. However, as they get older males become more solitary but may also associate in pairs or with female groups.[92][93] Giraffes are not territorial,[7] but they have home ranges that vary according to rainfall and proximity to human settlements.[94] Male giraffes occasionally wander far from areas that they normally frequent.[37]^:329

Although generally quiet and non-vocal, giraffes have been heard to communicate using snorts, sneezes, coughs, snores, hisses, bursts, moans, grunts and flute-like sounds. During courtship, males emit loud coughs. Females call their young by bellowing. Calves will emit snorts, bleats, mooing and mewing sounds. During nighttime, giraffes appear to hum to each other above the infrasound range for purposes which are unclear. Giraffes may also communicate visually with actions such as stamping, head tossing, and mane-waving.[42][95]

Angolan giraffes mating in Namibia

Reproduction in giraffes is broadly polygamous: a few older males mate with the fertile females. Male giraffes assess female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect oestrus, in a multi-step process known as the flehmen response.[88][93] Males prefer young adult females over juveniles and older adults.[88] Once an oestrous female is detected, the male will attempt to court her. When courting, dominant males will keep subordinate ones at bay.[93] A courting male may lick a female's tail, rest his head and neck on her body or nudge her with his ossicones. During copulation, the male stands on his hind legs with his head held up and his front legs resting on the female's sides.[42]

Giraffe gestation lasts 400–460 days, after which a single calf is normally born, although twins occur on rare occasions.[96] The mother gives birth standing up. The calf emerges head and front legs first, having broken through the fetal membranes, and falls to the ground, severing the umbilical cord.[7] The mother then grooms the newborn and helps it stand up.[50]^:40 A newborn giraffe is 1.7–2 m (5.6–6.6 ft) tall.[44][45][46] Within a few hours of birth, the calf can run around and is almost indistinguishable from a one-week-old. However, for the first 1–3 weeks, it spends most of its time hiding;[97] its coat pattern providing camouflage. The ossicones, which have lain flat while it was in the womb, become erect within a few days.[42]

Mother South African giraffe with calf

Mothers with calves will gather in nursery herds, moving or browsing together. Mothers in such a group may sometimes leave their calves with one female while they forage and drink elsewhere. This is known as a "calving pool".[97] Adult males play almost no role in raising the young,[37]^:337 although they appear to have friendly interactions.[88] Calves are at risk of predation, and a mother giraffe will stand over her calf and kick at an approaching predator.[42] Females watching calving pools will only alert their own young if they detect a disturbance, although the others will take notice and follow.[97]

The length time in which offspring stay with their mother varies, though it can last until the female's next calving.[97] Likewise, calves may suckle for only a month[37]^:335 or as long as a year.[42][93] Females become sexually mature when they are four years old, while males become mature at four or five years. Spermatogenesis in male giraffes begins at three to four years of age.[98] Males must wait until they are at least seven years old to gain the opportunity to mate.[42][50]^:40

Here, male South African giraffes engage in low intensity necking to establish dominance, in Ithala Game Reserve, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa.

Male giraffes use their necks as weapons in combat, a behaviour known as "necking". Necking is used to establish dominance and males that win necking bouts have greater reproductive success.[14] This behaviour occurs at low or high intensity. In low intensity necking, the combatants rub and lean against each other. The male that can hold itself more erect wins the bout. In high intensity necking, the combatants will spread their front legs and swing their necks at each other, attempting to land blows with their ossicones. The contestants will try to dodge each other's blows and then get ready to counter. The power of a blow depends on the weight of the skull and the arc of the swing.[42] A necking duel can last more than half an hour, depending on how well matched the combatants are.[37]^:331 Although most fights do not lead to serious injury, there have been records of broken jaws, broken necks, and even deaths.[14]

After a duel, it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.[99] In one study, up to 94 percent of observed mounting incidents took place between males. The proportion of same-sex activities varied from 30 to 75 percent. Only one percent of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.[100]

Lioness seen with an adult Masai giraffe kill

Giraffes have high adult survival probability,[101][102] and an unusually long lifespan compared to other ruminants, up to 38 years.[103] Because of their size, eyesight and powerful kicks, adult giraffes are usually not subject to predation,[42] although lions may regularly prey on individuals up to 550 kg (1,210 lb).[104] Giraffes are the most common food source for the big cats in Kruger National Park, comprising nearly a third of the meat consumed, although only a small portion of the giraffes were probably killed by predators, as a majority of the consumed giraffes appeared to be scavenged.[105][106] Nile crocodiles can also be a threat to giraffes when they bend down to drink.[50] Calves are much more vulnerable than adults and are additionally preyed on by leopards, spotted hyenas and wild dogs.[51] A quarter to a half of giraffe calves reach adulthood.[101][107] Calf survival varies according to the season of birth, with calves born during the dry season having higher survival rates.[108]

The local, seasonal presence of large herds of migratory wildebeests and zebras reduces predation pressure on giraffe calves and increases their survival probability.[109] In turn, it has been suggested that other ungulates may benefit from associating with giraffes as their height allows them to spot predators from further away. Zebras were found to glean information on predation risk from giraffe body language and spend less time scanning the environment when giraffes are present.[110]

Some parasites feed on giraffes. They are often hosts for ticks, especially in the area around the genitals, which has thinner skin than other areas. Tick species that commonly feed on giraffes are those of genera Hyalomma, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus. Giraffes may rely on red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers to clean them of ticks and alert them to danger. Giraffes host numerous species of internal parasite and are susceptible to various diseases. They were victims of the (now eradicated) viral illness rinderpest.[7] Giraffes can also suffer from a skin disorder, which comes in the form of wrinkles, lesions or raw fissures. In Tanzania, it appears to be caused by a nematode, and may be further affected by secondary infections. As much as 79% of giraffes show signs of the disease in Ruaha National Park, but it did not cause mortality in Tarangire and is less prevalent in areas with fertile soils.[111][112][113]

In 2010, giraffes were assessed as Least Concern from a conservation perspective by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), but the 2016 assessment categorized giraffes as Vulnerable.[1] In 1999, it was estimated that over 140,000 giraffes existed in the wild,[31] but estimations as of 2016 indicate that there are approximately 97,500 members of Giraffa in the wild, down from 155,000 in 1985.[119][120] The Masai and reticulated subspecies are endangered,[121][122] and the Rothschild subspecies is near threatened.[34] The Nubian subspecies is critically endangered.[123] The primary causes for giraffe population declines are habitat loss and direct killing for bushmeat markets.[21] Giraffes have been extirpated from much of their historic range including Eritrea, Guinea, Mauritania and Senegal. They may also have disappeared from Angola, Mali, and Nigeria, but have been introduced to Rwanda and Swaziland.[1] [123] As of 2010, there were more than 1,600 in captivity at Species360-registered zoos.[30]

Protected areas such as national parks provide important habitat and anti-poaching protection to giraffe populations.[21] Community-based conservation efforts outside national parks are also effective at protecting giraffes and their habitats.[124][125] Private game reserves have contributed to the preservation of giraffe populations in southern Africa.[43] The giraffe is a protected species in most of its range. It is the national animal of Tanzania,[126] and is protected by law,[127] and unauthorised killing can result in imprisonment.[128] The UN backed Convention of Migratory Species selected giraffes for protection in 2017.[129] In 2019, giraffes were listed under Appendix 2 of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which will now document international trade in giraffe parts, such as hides, bones and meat.[130] Translocations are sometimes used to augment or re-establish diminished or extirpated populations, but these activities are risky and difficult to undertake using the best practices of extensive pre- and post-translocation studies and ensuring a viable founding population.[131][132] Aerial survey is the most common method of monitoring giraffe population trends in the vast roadless tracts of African landscapes, but aerial methods are known to undercount giraffes.[133] Ground-based survey methods are more accurate and can be used in conjunction with aerial surveys to make accurate estimates of population sizes and trends.[133]

Masai giraffe killed by tribesmen in German East Africa during the early 20th century

Giraffes were probably common targets for hunters throughout Africa.[37] Different parts of their bodies were used for different purposes.[7] Their meat was used for food. The tail hairs served as flyswatters, bracelets, necklaces, and thread.[7][37] Shields, sandals, and drums were made using the skin, and the strings of musical instruments were from the tendons.[7] The smoke from burning giraffe skins was used by the medicine men of Buganda to treat nose bleeds.[37] The Humr people of Kordofan consume the drink Umm Nyolokh, which is prepared from the liver and bone marrow of giraffes. Richard Rudgley hypothesised that Umm Nyolokh might contain DMT.[134] The drink is said to cause hallucinations of giraffes, believed to be the giraffes' ghosts, by the Humr.[135] In the 19th century, European explorers began to hunt them for sport.[50] Habitat destruction has hurt the giraffe. In the Sahel, the need for firewood and grazing room for livestock has led to deforestation. Normally, giraffes can coexist with livestock, since they do not directly compete with them.[43] In 2017, severe droughts in northern Kenya have led to increased tensions over land and the killing of wildlife by herders, with giraffe populations being particularly hit.[136]