Chapacuran languages

The Chapacuran languages are a nearly extinct Native American language family of South America. There are three living Chapacuran languages which are spoken in Rondônia in the southern Amazon Basin of Brazil and in northern Bolivia.

Chapacuran
Chapacura–Wanham
Linguistic classificationWamo–Chapakúra
  • Chapacuran
Subdivisions
  • Madeira
  • Guapore
Glottologchap1271

Almost all Chapacuran languages are extinct, and the four that are extant are moribund.

Kaufman (1990) claims that the Chapacuran languages are related to the extinct Wamo language.

Languages

Birchall (2013)

Birchall et al. (2013) classify the dozen known Chapacuran languages as follows:[1]

All languages are rather closely related. Rocorona appears closest to Torá and Moré (Itene), but those do not cluster together in the classification above.

Extinct languages for which Loukotka says 'nothing' is known, but which may have been Chapacuran, include Cujuna, Mataua, Urunumaca, and Herisobocono. Similarities with Mure appear to be loans.[2]

Angenot (1997)

List of Chapacuran languages from Angenot (1997):[3]

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Irantxe, Puinave-Kak, and Arawa language families due to contact.[4]

Varieties

Below is a full list of Chapacuran language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[5]

  • Chapacura / Huachi / Tapacura - extinct language once spoken on the Blanco River and around Lake Chitiopa, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
  • Irene / Moré - spoken on the Guaporé River, Azul River, and Mamoré River, Beni province, Bolivia.
  • Itoreauhip - spoken between the Guaporé River and Azul River in Bolivia.
  • Quitemo - once spoken on the Uruvaito River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia.
  • Nape - once spoken in the same country on Lake Chitiopa.
  • Mure - once spoken on the San Martín River in Bolivia.
  • Rocorona - once spoken on the San Martín River.
  • Herisebocon - once spoken on the Rapulo River near the old mission of San Borja, Bolivia. (Unattested.)
  • Wañám / Huanyam / Pawumwa - spoken between the São Miguel River and São Domingo River, territory of Rondônia, Brazil.
  • Abitana - spoken as a dialect of the Wañám language at the sources of the São Miguel River, Brazil.
  • Kumana / Cautario - spoken between the Guaporé River and Cautario River, Rondônia.
  • Pacahanovo / Uari Wayõ - spoken on the Pacaás Novos River, Rondônia.
  • Kabixi - spoken between the São Miguel River and Preto River, Rondônia, now perhaps extinct.
  • Mataua - spoken in the western area of the Cautario River. (Unattested.)
  • Urunamacan - spoken to the north of the Wañám tribe, Rondônia, Brazil. (Unattested.)
  • Uómo / Miguelheno - spoken on the São Miguel River. (Unattested.)
  • Tapoaya - spoken by an unknown tribe at the sources of the Cautario River. (Unattested.)
  • Cujuna - spoken by a very little known tribe, now perhaps extinct, to the north of the Kumaná tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Urupá / Ituarupa - spoken on the Urupá River, Rondônia.
  • Yarú - spoken by a few families on the Yarú River.
  • Yamarú - extinct language once spoken on the Jamari River. (Unattested.)
  • Torá / Tura - formerly spoken on the Marmelos River and Paricá River, state of Amazonas; now by a few individuals on the Posta Cabeça d'anta, state of Amazonas.

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Chapacuran languages.[5]

glossChapacuraIteneItoreauhipQuitemoNapeWañámAbitanaKumanáPacahanovoUrupáYarúTorá
eye tuku-chitoku-chitukichuːtükesitekisítokú
tooth yati-chiyíaiyadi-cheyitinchiyititaiyatitiyetisiitisíyatí
tongue tapuitaka-chikapayakapikaka-chekabíkachukapiyakatikapiyakatikapiakasikapiakasíképiat
water akumkomoakoakonkúmkumkumkomkom
fire iseicheiseiszeichéitsäichaiséiseːixé
sun huapiitonapitomapitopapuitomapiitogwapirumapirúmapitókumémkomémapuetó
star huiüiyaopipiyopil'ahupipiáoútinpiúpipiyóupiúupióupiúpipiyó
maize xadömapakal'aokal'aomapmapaːkmapaːkmapágmapámapák
jaguar kiñamineorahuikokiñamkiñókinamkinamkinámkomenwakara
bow paramipariparipaniparúparietsmenmapípmapipparí

Proto-language

Proto-Chapacuran
Proto-Chapakura
Reconstruction ofChapacuran languages

Below are Proto-Chapacuran (Proto-Chapakura) reconstructions from the Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL) online,[6] cited from Angenot de Lima (1997).[7] English glosses are from DiACL, and the original Portuguese glosses are from Angenot de Lima (1997). For the full list of original Portuguese glosses, see the corresponding Portuguese article.

Proto-ChapacuranEnglish glossPortuguese glossScientific name
*haɾamto button
*hoɾamchin
*ja:to say, to speak
*jawpillar, to grind with a stone
*jaʔto bathe
*jikatpenis
*jowinmonkey speciesmacaco-pregoSapajus
*ju:to keep secretseguir às escondidas
*jukto push, to remove
*kamaɲˀbland, without salt
*kapcaterpillar species
*kapampamonha (traditional food)
*kaɾaʔ/*hʷaɾaʔlarge, fat
*kat, *kawˀriver dolphin
*kat, *ɾatto yawn
*katimfoot
*katinˀlarge tick
*katᶴak/*katᶴokto tickle, tickling
*katᶴinpineapple
*kawˀto eat
*kawa:tree speciesárvore-rochinha
*kawa:kind of small arrow, used by children playing
*kawitparrot speciespapagaio-curica
*kedᶻekto lick
*kenumcocoa
*kijiʔto descend, to lower
*kinamjaguar, dog
*kipuntail
*kipʷin(to be) cold
*kitambridge, jirau grill[8]ponte, grelha para moquear
*kiwto bite, to chew
*kiwoʔarrow (generic)
*koki:piranha
*komto sing (people)
*komeNsun
*koɾa:paddle
*koɾanpalm speciespalmeira-carundaíburiti?
*kotemred, ripe
*kotok/*koɾokto knock down fruits by beating the tree
*kɾamelbow, joint
*kɾanant speciesformiga-saúvaAtta
*kɾikto see, to observe, to look
*kɾomto enter, inside
*kukto pull, to drag
*kunˀtree speciesárvore-cachimbeira, jequitibá-vermelho; salCariniana rubra
*kunu:to stink, bad smell
*kutto pick, to catch
*kʷaɾaʔcommon armadillo
*ma(w)to go
*madᶻankind of yambatata-cará
*makiʔto come, to arrive
*manaʔanger, brave
*mapakcorn
*mapawˀclub, baton
*mapomfat, grease
*mapʷipkind of small bow
*maɾamto paint, to write
*mawi:to steal, thief
*mawinannatto (tree species), wood for making fireBixa orellana
*mekuʔcrab
*memred, ripe
*mikoppaca
*mitᶴemblack
*mo:to run
*mokonrope, cord, string, thread
*momto swell because of illness, to have a tumor
*moɾoʔflour
*mowawˀtucumã palm larvabroca do tucumãlarva of Astrocaryum aculeatum
*mowinpus, infection, tumour
*muɾinˀswallow
*mʷijakwild hog
*n(e/o)nto whistle with help from the hand
*nakto smell, to sniff
*naɾanpitch/tar (of jatobá tree); lightbreu (de jatobá); luzHymenaea courbaril
*natanface, front
*nokto hate, to reject
*nokto suckle
*nopontree speciesárvore-itaúbaMezilaurus itauba
*pa:to beat, to slap
*padᶻawpubic hair
*pakaʔred, ripe
*pana:tree (generic), wood, log
*papatbamboo species, kind of arrow, bomboo knifetaquara (esp.); flecha (esp.); faca de bambu
*papopwind
*paɾV:bow (generic)
*patiʔanimal (generic), fish
*pawˀto tie (up)
*paʔto kill, to hunt, to beat to death
*pijeʔnewborn child
*pikotgiant armadillotatu gigante
*piponbird speciescujubimPipile cujubi
*piɾamˀsquirrelquoati-puru, esquilo
*pitᶴakto scratch, to itch
*pitᶴi:horn
*piwantarantulaaranha caranguejeira
*piʔto dance
*pokthigh, upper leg
*ponto fart
*potto pull out
*potto get, to tear, to extract
*potᶴto cook; to spitcozinhar; cuspir
*poʔto wake up, to rouse
*pɾinparakeet
*pɾu:to kill, to hit a target with an arrow
*pu:to blow, to light a fire
*puɾekto miss the target with an arrow
*pʷe:to sit
*pʷikunstone, rock
*pʷinto leave behind
*pʷiɾanboa
*pʷitto break, to cut, to extract, to unrip
*pʷiti:large horsefly
*pʷitˢi:palm speciespalmeira-totaiAcrocomia aculeata subsp. totai
*pʷitˢopporcupine, hedgehog
*pʷiwflower
*ɾi:(tan)banana (generic)
*tajincharcoal
*takatwax (honey, ear, for arrow, etc.)
*takawˀkind of fishpeixe-caráGeophagus brasiliensis
*takiʔto fly, to leave flying
*tanleaf, one
*tapanmonkey speciesmacaco-saguimCallitrichidae; Callithrix jacchus
*tapiwagouti
*tapotstraw, cover/roofing of house
*tata:father (1SG.POSS)
*tatawrope made of tree fibers; hornenvira (esp.); chifre
*tatˢamto laugh, to smile
*tatᶴiʔhusband
*tawanlazy, sulky, disobedient
*tawi:bee (generic), honey
*tawitfence, surrounded
*taʔto cut
*tikatto finish
*timheart
*tipanarm
*tipatwing
*tipoʔto follow a trail
*titimˀ/*tiɾimˀto lie down
*tokto drink
*tokeye, grain, seed, stone
*toke:chestnut, Brazil nut
*tomto burn, black
*tomiʔto say, to speak
*tonto knock down fruits by beating the tree
*topto explode, to break corn
*topakmouth, lips, to speak
*topanskin, peel, bark
*topopbasket (generic)
*toɾo:to swell, to ferment, to cause swelling
*totᶴamclay
*totᶴikbee species, honeyabelha-lambeolho; seu melLeurotrigona muelleri
*towa:turtle, tortoise; rubber cylinder (?)tartaruga, tracaja, jabuti; tambor de caucho
*towankind of fruitfruta-murisiByrsonima crassifolia
*towaʔwhite, bright color, daybreak/dawn
*towinparrot speciespapagaio-curica
*toʔto beat, to open, to crack, to cut
*tɾakombamboo, taboca (bamboo species)bambu; tabocaGuadua weberbaueri
*tɾakopfermented drink
*tɾamaʔman
*tɾamʷinred macaw
*tɾan tɾanguan birdjacuPenelope
*tɾapo:white hair
*tɾawanliver; palm species, fish speciesfígado; palmeira-patua; patua; surubimPimelodidae
*tɾikcoal, ember
*tɾotaricuri palm leafSyagrus coronata
*tᶴakto suck on a fruit
*tᶴekday
*tᶴijatnet
*tᶴikone
*tᶴikinˀnail, claw; traíra (fish species)unha, garra; traíra (peixe)Erythrinidae
*tᶴinto throw
*tᶴitotcountry, to plant
*tᶴiw(to be) cold
*tᶴokto suck "noisily", to make a "sucking" sound
*tᶴomto step; to insistpisar, bater o pé
*tᶴopinto spit
*tᶴorawswallow
*tᶴowiʔrain, winter
*tᶴupto kiss "noisily"
*tunhair, coat
*tutto walk
*wakto add, to pile up
*waki:toad species
*wanto copulate, to have sex
*wana:way, path, road
*waɲamIndian of enemy tribe
*waɾaksap, sperm, vaginal secretion
*watamkind of fruit
*watᶴikcommon opossummucuraDidelphis marsupialis
*wetto marry
*weʔto vomit
*wijakto scrape with a knife
*wijamsmall
*wina:to raise an animal, to tame/domesticate
*wina:grandson
*winimˀto wait, to except
*witᶴiʔto roast on coal/ember
*ʔajiʔolder brother
*ʔaka:to sing (of bird), to cackle, to cry
*ʔakomwater; river; rain
*ʔakopmanioc, cassava
*ʔamedge, margin
*ʔamiʔto give
*ʔamonexcrements, feces, intestines, belly
*ʔamʷi:very, much
*ʔaɲto cry
*ʔaninyounger sister
*ʔapa:palm speciespalmeira-marayauBactris major
*ʔapamshoulder
*ʔapankind of fruit
*ʔapaʔmaternal grandmother
*ʔapi:thorn, needle, hook
*ʔapi:father-in-law
*ʔapiʔto finish
*ʔapo:uncle (aunt's husband)
*ʔapopcaimanjacaré
*ʔatatbone, leg
*ʔataw/*ʔaɾawback, shoulders
*ʔatinyounger brother
*ʔatɾimhouse, traditional village (maloca)
*ʔatᶴaʔyounger sibling
*ʔatᶴemto sneeze
*ʔawto spill liquid, to bleed, to leak, to drain, to drip
*ʔawanbitter
*ʔawantree species with venomous bark
*ʔawanpig, hog, capybara
*ʔawi:good, beautiful, tasty
*ʔawikblood
*ʔawinsky, height, to charge upwards
*ʔawomcotton; clothes; dove/pigeon speciesalgodão; roupa; pomba (esp.)
*ʔawum2SG
*ʔenembrother-in-law (sister's husband)
*ʔeppillar, to grind with a stone
*ʔeɾumtrumpeter (bird species)jacamimPsophia
*ʔewburn
*ʔewu:toucan
*ʔihʷamfish (generic)
*ʔijattooth, beak
*ʔijaʔvessel made of palmvasilha feita de cacho de palmeira
*ʔijewˀpaternal grandfather
*ʔiji:palm speciespalmeira-bacabaOenocarpus bacaba
*ʔijinˀfear, to fear
*ʔijoʔto put out, to erase
*ʔikankind of mosquitomosquito-catoqui
*ʔikatmedicine man, sorcerer
*ʔikatto break
*ʔikimchest, thorax
*ʔikitknife, iron instrument
*ʔimanhole, vagina
*ʔimiʔkind of mosquito or flypium, borrachudoSimuliidae
*ʔimʷinˀtapir
*ʔimʷiʔto die, dead
*ʔinamˀpregnant
*ʔinawˀbat
*ʔinaʔmother
*ʔipa:to open (eyes, door)
*ʔipanto fall, to be born
*ʔipiklatex, rubberseringa; borracha
*ʔipʷikanteater speciestamanduá-mirimTamandua tetradactyla
*ʔiɾamaçaí palmpalmeira-açai
*ʔiɾiʔ(to be) right, truth
*ʔitbody
*ʔitakto swallow
*ʔitaʔ/*ʔiɾaʔto urinate
*ʔite:father (1SG.POSS)
*ʔitᶴe:fire, firewood
*ʔitˢimnight
*ʔitᶴincentipede, millipede
*ʔiwˀlouse
*ʔiwanto get home
*ʔiwi:mat
*ʔiwiʔsmoke
*ʔodᶻippalm speciespalmeira-najáAttalea maripa
*ʔojamspirit, soul of a corpse
*ʔojoppacu (fish species)
*ʔokinscorpion
*ʔokonpalm speciespalmeira-real / buritiMauritia flexuosa
*ʔomaʔto live, to have, to exist
*ʔomi:scrubland, bush, firm land
*ʔonto whistle without help from the hand
*ʔonaɲpalm speciespalmeira-buruburuAstrocaryum murumuru
*ʔonoknavel, belly button
*ʔopto dance
*ʔopaʔbagre (fish species)bagre
*ʔopi:woodworm/beetle speciescaruncho rola-bosta; besouro (esp.)
*ʔopotkind of liana used for bindingcipó-ambé, usado para amarrar
*ʔoɾamcheek
*ʔorawˀmushroom species
*ʔoro:people of, clan of, kind of
*ʔoɾomgourd, calabash
*ʔoɾotto break out (2nd permanent tooth of a child)
*ʔotincurassow (bird species)mutumCracidae
*ʔoto:gourd, calabash
*ʔotˢiwmonkey speciesmacaco-de-cheiro amareloSaimiri
*ʔowamkind of fishpeixe-jejuHoplerythrinus unitaeniatus
*ʔowitwart
*ʔoβi:anum (bird species)Crotophaga
*ʔukunflesh (of the body), body
*ʔumhand
*ʔumʷe:bird (generic)
*ʔupʷekhead
*ʔupʷeɲto sleep
*ʔuɾinant speciesformiga-da-castanha
*ʔutuɾnose
*ʔututurine
*ʔuwe:older sister
*ʔuwewpaternal grandmother
*ʔuwitname
*ʔuʔant speciesformiga-saraça

Notes and references

  1. Birchall, Joshua and Dunn, Michael and Greenhill, Simon (2013) An internal classification of the Chapacuran language family.
  2. Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020). "Chapacuran". Glottolog 4.3.
  3. Angenot, Geralda de Lima (1997). Fonotática e Fonologia do Lexema Protochapacura. Dissertação do Mestrado, Universidade Federal de Rondônia.
  4. Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
  5. Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
  6. "Proto-Chapacuran". Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL). Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  7. Angenot de Lima, Geralda (1997). Fonotática e Fonologia do Lexema Protochapacura. Master’s dissertation, Universidade Federal de Rondônia.
  8. Jirau is a kind of indigenous frame for grilling meat or fish.
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