Paja Formation

The Paja Formation (Spanish: Formación Paja, K1p, Kip, Kimp, b3b6p) is an Early Cretaceous geologic formation of central Colombia. The formation extends across the northern part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the Western Colombian emerald belt and surrounding areas of the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. In the subsurface, the formation is found in the Middle Magdalena Valley to the west. The Paja Formation stretches across four departments, from north to south the southernmost Bolívar Department, in Santander, Boyacá and the northern part of Cundinamarca. Well known fossiliferous outcrops of the formation occur near Villa de Leyva, also written as Villa de Leiva, and neighboring Sáchica.

Paja Formation
Stratigraphic range: Late Hauterivian-Late Aptian
~130–113 Ma
Desmatochelys padillai from the Paja Formation
TypeGeological formation
Sub-unitsLutitas Negras Inferiores, Arcillolitas Abigarradas & Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos Members
UnderliesSan Gil Group, Simití & Tablazo Formations
OverliesRitoque & Rosablanca Formations
Area450 km (280 mi)
Thicknessup to 940 m (3,080 ft)
Lithology
PrimaryBlack shale, claystone, sandstone and limestone concretions
OtherGypsum, chalcopyrite, galena, malachite, pyrite, sphalerite
Location
Coordinates5.5°N 73.5°W / 5.5; -73.5
Approximate paleocoordinates3.7°N 42.2°W / 3.7; -42.2
RegionBolívar, Boyacá, Cundinamarca & Santander
Country Colombia
ExtentAltiplano Cundiboyacense
Eastern Ranges, Andes
Middle Magdalena Valley
Type section
Named forQuebrada La Paja
Named byWheeler
Year defined1929?
Coordinates7°01′33.4″N 73°19′27.8″W
RegionBetulia, Santander
Thickness at type section625 m (2,051 ft)

Outcrops of the Paja Formation near Villa de Leyva

The formation was named after Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is overlain by the San Gil Group and the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the late Hauterivian to late Aptian. The Paja Formation comprises mudstones, shales and nodules of sandstones and limestones, deposited in an anoxic environment, in the warm and shallow sea that covered large parts of the present Colombian territory during the Cretaceous.

Initially considered to host Colombian emeralds, the emerald-bearing part was redefined as a separate formation; the Muzo Formation. The Paja Formation Lagerstätte[1] is famous for its vertebrate fossils and is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Several marine reptile fossils of plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, ichthyosauras and turtles have been described from the formation and it hosts the only dinosaur fossils described in the country to date; Padillasaurus. The formation also has provided many ammonites, fossil flora, decapods and the fossil shark Protolamna ricaurtei.

Description

The Paja Formation was first described by O.C. Wheeler, according to Morales (1958),[2] and named after Quebrada La Paja, a tributary of the Sogamoso River. The type section is exposed on the northern banks of the quebrada at the confluence of the Sogamoso River in Betulia, Santander.[3][4]

The formation is divided into the Lutitas Negras Inferiores, Arcillolitas Abigarradas and Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos Members, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is overlain by the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the Hauterivian to Late Aptian.

Outcrops
Type locality of the Paja Formation in Santander

The type section of the Paja Formation is found at the banks of Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, where the formation has a thickness of 625 metres (2,051 ft).[5] Outcrops of the formation extend from Simití in the north, close to the border of Santander and Bolívar, where the formation is offset by the Simití Fault,[6] to the Pauna Anticlinal in San Pablo de Borbur, where the formation is thrusted over the Ritoque Formation in the south.[7] In the southern extension of the exposures, the formation crops out in the north of Tununguá, near the Ibacapí Fault.[8]

Santander

In the Middle Magdalena Valley, south of Barrancabermeja, the Paja Formation in the subsurface is offset by the Casabe, Infantas and Arruga Faults.[9] In the northeastern extent, in Río Negro, near the border with Norte de Santander, the formation is found in the subsurface, offset by the Lebríja Fault.[10] The town center of Zapatoca rests on the formation in the synclinal named after the village.[4] The Paja Formation also crops out in the northwestern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, east of San Pablo, Bolívar, where in the formation underlies the Simití Formation and is offset in the subsurface by the Pozo Azul and Caña Braval Faults.[11] South of there, the Paja Formation is offset by the La Corcovada and El Guineal Faults,[12] and the regional La Salina Fault.[13] Near the eponymous town, the formation is offset by the Landazurí Fault.[14]

West of Barichara, the formation underlies the corregimiento Guane, Barichara and is found in the hills bordering both sides of the Suárez River.[15] In this area, the Paja Formation is offset by the Suárez Fault.[16] Surrounding Jordán, Santander, the formation crops out on both sides of the Chicamocha River in the Chicamocha Canyon. The touristic town San Gil rests on the formation and the Fonce River cuts into it. East of the town center, the formation is offset by the Curití and Ocamonte Faults.[15] The urban centers of Oiba, San Benito, Encino, Ocamonte and Charalá are built on top of the Paja Formation. In this area, the formation is offset by the Confines and Encino Faults.[17] Further to the south, the towns of Vélez, Guavatá and Jesús María rest on the formation. West of the latter, the Paja Formation is put in a reverse faulted contact with the Cumbre Formation.[18] The El Carmen Fault puts the Paja Formation in contact with the Jurassic Girón Formation.[16]

Boyacá
Fossiliferous outcrops near Villa de Leyva on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense

In northeastern Boyacá, the formation underlies the urban center of Moniquirá (not to be confused with Monquirá, a vereda of nearby Villa de Leyva) and is crossed by the Moniquirá River.[18] West of Arcabuco in the Villa de Leyva Synclinal, the formation is cut by the Arcabuco River.[19] In the vicinity of Pauna and San Pablo de Borbur, the formation crops out in an extensive area. Here, the Paja Formation is offset by the Río Minero and Pedro Gómez Faults and occurs in the footwall of the La Venta Fault.[20] North of Lake Fúquene, the town centers of Tinjacá and Sutamarchán are built on top of the Paja Formation. In this area, the formation extends into the northern part of Cundinamarca,[7] where the urban centers of Yacopí and La Palma rest on the formation.[21]

Villa de Leyva

Surrounding the touristic town of Villa de Leyva, the formation crops out in the hills in a microclimatic location, known as the La Candelaria Desert (Spanish: Desierto de La Candelaria), stretching across Villa de Leyva, Santa Sofía and Sáchica.[7][22] Along the highway Tunja-Villa de Leyva, the formation is heavily folded and faulted along a stretch of 500 metres (1,600 ft).[23] In the vicinity of Villa de Leyva, the formation has provided many fossils of marine reptiles, as well as the dinosaur Padillasaurus.

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphic column of the Paja Formation with Sachicasaurus site indicated

The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is concordantly overlain by the San Gil Group and Tablazo Formations in the eastern extent,[24][25] and the Simití Formation in the northwestern Middle Magdalena Valley.[11] In the Western emerald belt, the contact with the Rosablanca Formation is concordant and abrupt.[26] The total thickness of the formation varies across its extent, but can reach up to 940 metres (3,080 ft).[27]

Members

The Paja Formation is subdivided into three members, from oldest to youngest:

  • Lutitas Negras Inferiores (Lower Black Shales) – a sequence of 340 metres (1,120 ft) of black shales and sandy shales with a segment containing calcareous nodules. The age of this member is estimated at late Hauterivian, based on ammonites analyzed by Fernando Etayo.[28]
  • Arcillolitas Abigarradas (Mottled Claystones) – a series of multicolored claystones with abundant calcareous fossiliferous nodules, reaching a thickness of 480 metres (1,570 ft). In the upper 235 metres (771 ft) of this member, intercalations of gypsum occur. The age of the middle member of the Paja Formation is estimated at early Barremian to late Aptian on the basis of ammonites described by Fernando Etayo.[28]
  • Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos (Claystones with Hollow Nodules) – the upper member of the formation of approximately 174 metres (571 ft) thick consists of yellowish and grey claystones containing hollow nodules. Ammonite analysis has led to an estimated late Aptian age for the member.[27]

In the northern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, the Paja Formation comprises dark grey to blueish shales, intercalated with grey to yellowish fine-grained sandstones and fossiliferous limestones, locally with a sandy component.[29] Bürgl in 1954 reported beds of tuff in the Paja Formation near Villa de Leyva.[30] Thin section analysis of samples of the Paja Formation has provided insight in the micritic components of the sediments, where three microfacies were recognized; biomicritic wackestones, foraminiferous packstones and sandy biomicritic floatstones containing fragments of echinoderms, bivalves, crinoids and gastropods cemented by hematite.[31]

The Paja Formation correlates with the Tibasosa Formation to the east on the northern Altiplano Cundiboyacense in Boyacá and with the El Peñón Formation pertaining to the Villeta Group to the south in the Eastern Ranges. The formation is laterally equivalent with the black shales of the Fómeque Formation in the eastern part of the Eastern Ranges and the sandstones of Las Juntas Formation in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy.[24] In the Middle Magdalena Valley to the west, the formation partly overlies and partly is laterally equivalent to the limestones of the Rosablanca Formation. The Paja Formation is diachronous with the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations.[27] To the northeast of the extent of the formation, it correlates with the upper part of the Río Negro Formation,[32] and the lowermost Tibú-Mercedes Formation of the Catatumbo Basin.[33]

Paleogeography
Paleogeography of northern South America during the Barremian and early Aptian
See also: Altiplano Cundiboyacense § Geology; and Eastern Hills, Bogotá § Geology

During deposition of the Paja Formation, the paleo coastline was oriented west-east.[34]

From the late Aptian to early Albian, the area was covered by an extensive carbonate platform, in the extent of the Paja Formation represented by the San Gil Group, Tablazo Formation and Villeta Group.[35]

Depositional environment

The thin section analysis led to the interpretation of a shoreface to lower shoreface environment,[36] in the internal parts of a carbonate platform,[37][38] where transgressions and regressions caused the variations in grain sizes and lithologies.[39] The Barremian to Aptian sequence shows evidence of an overall relative sea level fall with open marine sedimentation in the lowest member and tidal deposits in the upper part of the formation.[40]

One of the longest anoxic intervals of geologic history occurred during the Cretaceous, from about 125 to 80 Ma (early Aptian to early Campanian). During this Oceanic Anoxic Event, there were two spikes, the Selli event, dating to the early Aptian (approximately 120 Ma) was active during deposition of the black shales of the Paja Formation.[41] The formation contains three spikes of δ13C, with values above 1.5‰, in the lower, middle to upper and upper Paja Formation.[42] These spikes indicate a global change in the carbon cycle and the preservation of organic matter due to poor oxygenation of sea waters. The cause of these elevated δ13C levels may have been a global increase in volcanic activity.[43]

Mining and petroleum geology
See also: Colombian emeralds and List of mining areas in Colombia

The Paja Formation is one of the stratigraphic units cropping out in the Western emerald belt.[44] Mineralization in the formation has been dated on the basis of 40Ar/39Ar analysis of muscovite minerals. In western San Pablo de Borbur, Boyacá, the mineralization dates to the Late Eocene at 36.4 ± 0.1 and 37.3 ± 0.1 Ma.[45] In the northwestern part of Muzo, Boyacá, mineralization happened during the Early Oligocene, at 31.4 ± 0.3 Ma.[46] Previous geologic researchers considered the Paja Formation hosted emeralds,[47] and later definition of the stratigraphy of Colombia separated one of the main emerald formations of Colombia as the contemporaneous Barremian Muzo Formation, providing emeralds in the La Pita mine and important Coscuéz mine.[48]

The Paja Formation is known for its gypsum deposits, which are mined and restricted to Santander.[49] Near Guavatá, the formation hosts sphalerite and malachite and near Otanche, pyrite and galena are found in the formation.[47] In Gámbita, the Paja Formation contains pyrite, galena and chalcopyrite.[50] Other minerals occurring in the Paja Formation, are lead and zinc, around Paime and Yacopí, Cundinamarca.[51]

The Paja Formation is considered a minor source rock in the Eastern Cordillera Basin and the Middle Magdalena Valley, with seal capacity for the underlying Rosablanca Formation reservoir in the latter basin.[52][53] Vitrinite reflectance analysis on samples of the Paja Formation indicate an average value of 0.52 Ro, making the formation a marginal source rock.[54]

Paleontological significance
Gondava Dinosaur Park
See also: List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Colombia

The Paja Formation is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Fauna of dinosaurs, Padillasaurus, and various marine reptiles, among which plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, pliosaurs and turtles make up the vertebrate assemblage. Furthermore, many ammonites, the foraminifer Epistomina,[55] decapods, flora and fossil fish have been recovered from the formation. Paja ammonites have been used in the walls and floor of the Convento del Santo Ecce Homo near Villa de Leyva.

In 2019, turtle expert Edwin Cadena described a fossil of Desmatochelys padillai who was found with her eggs still inside her.[56]

Within the Arcillolitas Abigarradas Member of the Paja Formation, some horizons preserve abundant wood, which is frequently bored by pseudoplanktonic pholadoid bivalves, commonly referred to as "shipworms" or "piddocks". The presence of wood boring bivalves in Paja Formation seas indicates the continued presence of xylic substrates, and long residence time of floating wood.[1]

The paleontological richness of the formation led to the establishment of a center of investigation; Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas (CIP),[57] two museums; Paleontological Museum of Villa de Leyva,[58] and Museo El Fósil,[59] and a dinosaur park; Gondava,[60] near Villa de Leyva.

Reptiles
Reptiles of the Paja Formation
GenusSpeciesLocationMemberDescriptionNotesImage
AcostasaurusA. pavachoquensisArcillolitas abigarradasA pliosaurid with short snout, likely not a brachauchenine
[61]
CallawayasaurusC. colombiensisLoma La CatalinaArcillolitas abigarradasAn elasmosaurid plesiosaur, originally classified in Alzadasaurus
[62][63]
DesmatochelysD. padillaiLoma de Monsalve
Loma La Catalina		Arcillolitas abigarradasA species of the genus Desmatochelys, sea turtles that belongs to the extinct family Protostegidae. Is the oldest known sea turtle, and a specimen was found with eggs still inside her.
[64][56]
KronosaurusK. boyacensisVereda MonquiráArcillolitas abigarradasA large pliosaurid, and a relative of the Australian species K. queenslandicus
[65][66]
LeyvachelysL. cipadiLoma La CatalinaArcillolitas abigarradasA durophagous turtle member of the Sandownidae; is the first record for this group in South America. This species occurs too in the Glen Rose Formation in USA
[64][67]
LeivanectesL. bernadoiArcillolitas abigarradasAn elasmosaurid plesiosaur
[68]
MuiscasaurusM. cathetiVereda LlanitosArcillolitas abigarradasAn ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur, that it seems have occupied a different ecological niche respect to P. sachicarum
[69]
PadillasaurusP. leivaensisLa TordollaArcillolitas abigarradasA brachiosaurid dinosaur, that makes the first record of a terrestrial animal in the area, and the first Cretaceous brachiosaurid known outside from North America
[70]
PlatypterygiusP. sachicarumSáchicaArcillolitas abigarradasA platypterygiine ichthyosaur, relative of P. americanum
[71]
SachicasaurusS. vitaeSáchicaArcillolitas abigarradasA 10 metres (33 ft) subadult pliosaur
[72]
StenorhynchosaurusS. munoziLoma La CabreraArcillolitas abigarradasA small pliosaurid, over 3 meters in length. Formerly considered as a close relative of Brachauchenius lucasi from North America
[73][74]
Teleosauroidea gen. indet.species indet.Arcillolitas abigarradas Mb.Fossils of a member of Teleosauroidea with an estimated body length of 9.6 m, representing the most recent definitive record of Teleosauroidea reported
[75]

Ammonites
Ammonites of the Paja Formation in the floor of Convento del Santo Ecce Homo
Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas
Ammonite in concretion in the Museo Paleontológico de Villa de Leyva
Septarian concretions in the museum
Ammonites of the Paja Formation
SpeciesImagesNotes
Acanthoptychoceras trumpyi
[76]
Ancycloceras vandenheckii
[77]
Ancycloceras vandenheckii velezianum[78]
Buergliceras buerglii
[76][79]
Colchidites breistrofferi
[80][81]
Crioceratites emerici
[82]
Crioceratites leivaensis
[83]
Crioceratites tener
[84]
Hamiticeras chipatai
[85]
Hamiticeras pilsbryi
[86]
Hamulinites munieri
[87]
Karsteniceras beyrichi
[88][89]
Karsteniceras multicostatum
[90]
Monsalveiceras monsalvense
[91]
Nicklesia pulcella
[76][81]
Pariacrioceras barremense
[77]
Pedioceras asymmetricum
[92]
Pedioceras caquesense
[93]
Protanisoceras creutzbergi
[94]
Pseudoaustraliceras columbiae
[95]
Pseudoaustraliceras pavlowi
[96]
Pseudoaustraliceras ramososeptatum
[97]
Pseudocrioceras anthulai
[95]
Ptychoceras puzosianum
[80]
Tonohamites koeneni
[98]
Criceratites sp.
[76]
Pedioceras sp.
[76]
Acanthohoplites[99]
Acrioceras julivertii[100]
Colchidites apolinarii[101]
Crioceratites portarum[102]
Favrella colombiana[103]
Heinzia (Gerhardtia) veleziensis[81]
Nicklesia didayana didayana[104]
Nicklesia didayana multifida[104]
Nicklesia dumasiana[104]
Nicklesia nolani[104]
Olcostephanus boussingaultii[105]
Parasaynoceras horridum[106]
Pseudohaploceras incertum[104]
Psilotissotia colombiana[107]
Pulchellia galeata[81]
Dufrenoyia sp.[108]
Valdedorsella sp.[104]

Crustaceans
Crustaceans of the Paja Formation
SpeciesImageNotes
Bellcarcinus aptiensis
[109]
Colombicarcinus laevis[110]
Notopocorystes kerri[111]
Planocarcinus olssoni[112]
Telamonocarcinus antiquus[113]

Flora
Flora of the Paja Formation
SpeciesImageNotes
Frenelopsis cf. ramosissima
[114]
Pseudofrenelopsis sp.
[115]

Fish

Ichnofossils

Regional correlations
Cretaceous stratigraphy of the central Colombian Eastern Ranges
AgePaleomapVMMGuaduas-VélezW Emerald BeltVilleta anticlinalChiquinquirá-
Arcabuco		Tunja-
Duitama		Altiplano CundiboyacenseEl Cocuy
MaastrichtianUmirCórdobaSecaerodedGuaduasColón-Mito Juan
UmirGuadalupe
CampanianCórdoba
Oliní
SantonianLa LunaCimarrona - La TablaLa Luna
ConiacianOliníConejoChipaque
Güagüaquí
Loma GordaundefinedLa Frontera
TuronianHonditaLa FronteraOtanche
CenomanianSimitíhiatusLa CoronaSimijacaCapacho
Pacho Fm.Hiló - PachoChuruvitaUneAguardiente
AlbianHilóChiquinquiráTibasosaUne
TablazoTablazoCapotes - La Palma - SimitíSimitíTibú-Mercedes
AptianCapotesSocotá - El PeñónPajaFómeque
PajaPajaEl PeñónTrincherasRío Negro
La Naveta
Barremian
HauterivianMuzo
Cáqueza
Las Juntas
RosablancaRitoque
ValanginianRitoqueFuratenaÚtica - MurcaRosablancahiatusMacanal
Rosablanca
BerriasianCumbreCumbreLos MediosGuavio
TamborArcabucoCumbre
Sources
Stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin and surrounding provinces
MaAgePaleomapRegional eventsCatatumboCordilleraproximal Llanosdistal LlanosPutumayoVSMEnvironmentsMaximum thicknessPetroleum geologyNotes
0.01Holocene
Holocene volcanism
Seismic activity		alluviumOverburden
1Pleistocene
Pleistocene volcanism
Andean orogeny 3
Glaciations		GuayaboSoatá
Sabana		NecesidadGuayaboGigante
Neiva		Alluvial to fluvial (Guayabo)550 m (1,800 ft)
(Guayabo)		[118][119][120][121]
2.6Pliocene
Pliocene volcanism
Andean orogeny 3
GABI		Subachoque
5.3MessinianAndean orogeny 3
Foreland		MarichuelaCaimánHonda[120][122]
13.5LanghianRegional floodingLeónhiatusCajaLeónLacustrine (León)400 m (1,300 ft)
(León)		Seal[121][123]
16.2BurdigalianMiocene inundations
Andean orogeny 2		C1Carbonera C1OspinaProximal fluvio-deltaic (C1)850 m (2,790 ft)
(Carbonera)		Reservoir[122][121]
17.3C2Carbonera C2Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2)Seal
19C3Carbonera C3Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3)Reservoir
21Early MiocenePebas wetlandsC4Carbonera C4BarzalosaDistal fluvio-deltaic (C4)Seal
23Late Oligocene
Andean orogeny 1
Foredeep		C5Carbonera C5OritoProximal fluvio-deltaic (C5)Reservoir[119][122]
25C6Carbonera C6Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6)Seal
28Early OligoceneC7C7PepinoGualandayProximal deltaic-marine (C7)Reservoir[119][122][124]
32Oligo-EoceneC8UsmeC8onlapMarine-deltaic (C8)Seal
Source		[124]
35Late Eocene
MiradorMiradorCoastal (Mirador)240 m (790 ft)
(Mirador)		Reservoir[121][125]
40Middle EoceneRegaderahiatus
45
50Early Eocene
SochaLos CuervosDeltaic (Los Cuervos)260 m (850 ft)
(Los Cuervos)		Seal
Source		[121][125]
55Late PaleocenePETM
2000 ppm CO2		Los CuervosBogotáGualanday
60Early PaleoceneSALMABarcoGuaduasBarcoRumiyacoFluvial (Barco)225 m (738 ft)
(Barco)		Reservoir[118][119][122][121][126]
65Maastrichtian
KT extinctionCatatumboGuadalupeMonserrateDeltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe)750 m (2,460 ft)
(Guadalupe)		Reservoir[118][121]
72CampanianEnd of riftingColón-Mito Juan[121][127]
83SantonianVilleta/Güagüaquí
86Coniacian
89TuronianCenomanian-Turonian anoxic eventLa LunaChipaqueGachetáhiatusRestricted marine (all)500 m (1,600 ft)
(Gachetá)		Source[118][121][128]
93Cenomanian
Rift 2
100AlbianUneUneCaballosDeltaic (Une)500 m (1,600 ft)
(Une)		Reservoir[122][128]
113Aptian
CapachoFómequeMotemaYavíOpen marine (Fómeque)800 m (2,600 ft)
(Fómeque)		Source (Fóm)[119][121][129]
125BarremianHigh biodiversityAguardientePajaShallow to open marine (Paja)940 m (3,080 ft)
(Paja)		Reservoir[118]
129Hauterivian
Rift 1Tibú-
Mercedes		Las JuntashiatusDeltaic (Las Juntas)910 m (2,990 ft)
(Las Juntas)		Reservoir (LJun)[118]
133ValanginianRío NegroCáqueza
Macanal
Rosablanca		Restricted marine (Macanal)2,935 m (9,629 ft)
(Macanal)		Source (Mac)[119][130]
140BerriasianGirón
145TithonianBreak-up of PangeaJordánArcabucoBuenavista
Batá
SaldañaAlluvial, fluvial (Buenavista)110 m (360 ft)
(Buenavista)		"Jurassic"[122][131]
150Early-Mid Jurassic
Passive margin 2La Quinta
Montebel

Noreán		hiatusCoastal tuff (La Quinta)100 m (330 ft)
(La Quinta)		[132]
201Late Triassic
MucuchachiPayandé[122]
235Early Triassic
Pangeahiatus"Paleozoic"
250Permian
300Late Carboniferous
Famatinian orogenyCerro Neiva
()		[133]
340Early CarboniferousFossil fish
Romer's gap		Cuche
(355-385)		Farallones
()		Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche)900 m (3,000 ft)
(Cuche)
360Late Devonian
Passive margin 1Río Cachirí
(360-419)		Ambicá
()		Alluvial-fluvial-reef (Farallones)2,400 m (7,900 ft)
(Farallones)		[130][134][135][136][137]
390Early Devonian
High biodiversityFloresta
(387-400)
El Tíbet		Shallow marine (Floresta)600 m (2,000 ft)
(Floresta)
410Late SilurianSilurian mystery
425Early Silurianhiatus
440Late Ordovician
Rich fauna in BoliviaSan Pedro
(450-490)		Duda
()
470Early OrdovicianFirst fossilsBusbanzá
(>470±22)
Chuscales
Otengá		Guape
()		Río Nevado
()		Hígado
()
Agua Blanca
Venado
(470-475)
[138][139][140]
488Late Cambrian
Regional intrusionsChicamocha
(490-515)		Quetame
()		Ariarí
()		SJ del Guaviare
(490-590)		San Isidro
()		[141][142]
515Early CambrianCambrian explosion[140][143]
542Ediacaran
Break-up of Rodiniapre-Quetamepost-ParguazaEl Barro
()		Yellow: allochthonous basement
(Chibcha Terrane)
Green: autochthonous basement
(Río Negro-Juruena Province)		Basement[144][145]
600Neoproterozoic
Cariri Velhos orogenyBucaramanga
(600-1400)		pre-Guaviare[141]
800
Snowball Earth[146]
1000Mesoproterozoic
Sunsás orogenyAriarí
(1000)		La Urraca
(1030-1100)		[147][148][149][150]
1300Rondônia-Juruá orogenypre-AriaríParguaza
(1300-1400)		Garzón
(1180-1550)		[151]
1400
pre-Bucaramanga[152]
1600PaleoproterozoicMaimachi
(1500-1700)		pre-Garzón[153]
1800
Tapajós orogenyMitú
(1800)		[151][153]
1950Transamazonic orogenypre-Mitú[151]
2200Columbia
2530Archean
Carajas-Imataca orogeny[151]
3100Kenorland
Sources
Legend
  • group
  • important formation
  • fossiliferous formation
  • minor formation
  • (age in Ma)
  • proximal Llanos (Medina)[note 1]
  • distal Llanos (Saltarin 1A well)[note 2]

Panorama
Panorama of the Chicamocha Canyon, from bottom to top; Jurassic Jordán and Girón Formations, and the Cretaceous Rosablanca and Paja Formations

See also

Notes
  1. based on Duarte et al. (2019)[154], García González et al. (2009),[155] and geological report of Villavicencio[156]
  2. based on Duarte et al. (2019)[154] and the hydrocarbon potential evaluation performed by the UIS and ANH in 2009[157]

References
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Bibliography
Geology
Paleontology

Maps
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