Timeline of the Ming dynasty

This is a timeline of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) from the rise of the Hongwu Emperor to the rise and establishment of the Qing dynasty.

See also: Timeline of the Yuan dynasty and Timeline of the Qing dynasty
Ming dynasty

14th century

1320s
YearDateEvent
132821 OctoberZhu Yuanzhang is born to a family of poor tenant farmers in Anhui[1]

1340s
YearDateEvent
1344JuneAn epidemic, locusts, and drought kills Zhu Yuanzhang's family, leaving only himself, his sister-in-law and her young son as the sole survivors[2]
OctoberZhu Yuanzhang enters a local Buddhist monastery as a novice to do menial work; eventually he's sent out to beg for food - it's speculated that he ends up joining the army[2]
1347Zhu Yuanzhang returns to the Buddhist monastery[3]

1350s
YearDateEvent
135215 AprilRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang becomes a rebel under Guo Zixing's command in Haozhou[3]
1353Red Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang receives an independent command from Guo Zixing and captures Chuzhou[4]
135511 JulyRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang crosses the Changjiang[5]
Red Turban Rebellion: Guo Zixing dies and his eldest son succeeds him, but he also dies, making Zhu Yuanzhang leader of the rebels[6]
135610 AprilRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang takes Nanjing[7]
1357summerRed Turban Rebellion: Zhang Shide is captured by Zhu Yuanzhang and starves to death[8]
1358Red Turban Rebellion: Defending garrisons fire cannons en masse at the siege of Shaoxing and defeat Zhu Yuanzhang's forces[9]

1360s
YearDateEvent
1360Red Turban Rebellion: Chen Youliang murders Xu Shouhui and proclaims the Great Han at Wuchang before attacking Zhu Yuanzhang at Nanjing only to be repulsed[10]
136330 August - 4 OctoberBattle of Lake Poyang: Chen Youliang's fleet is demolished by Zhu Yuanzhang's forces and dies[10]
Red Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang saves Han Liner and moves the Song court west of Nanjing where it remains militarily insignificant[11]
1365autumnRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang attacks Zhang Shicheng[12]
Zhu Yuanzhang sets up a school with a teaching staff of "Erudites" (boshi)[13]
1367OctoberRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang's army under Zhu Liangzi takes Taizhou[14]
1 OctoberRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang takes Suzhou and Zhang Shicheng hangs himself;[15] 2,400 large and small cannons are deployed by the Ming army at the siege of Suzhou.[9]
NovemberRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Liangzi takes Wenzhou[14]
13 NovemberRed Turban Rebellion: Zhu Yuanzhang issues orders for Xu Da and Chang Yuchun to head north with 250,000 soldiers and Hu Mei, Tang He, and Liao Yongzhong to attack Fujian and Guangdong[16]
DecemberRed Turban Rebellion: Fang Guozhen surrenders to Zhu Yuanzhang[17]
28 DecemberRed Turban Rebellion: Hu Mei's forces take Shaowu[16]
Red Turban Rebellion: Xu Da and Chang Yuchun conquer Jinan[16]
Zhu Yuanzhang reestablishes the imperial examinations[18]
136818 JanuaryRed Turban Rebellion: Hu Mei captures Fuzhou[16]
23 JanuaryZhu Yuanzhang proclaims himself the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty (note that Ming and Qing use the era name rather than temple name)[18]
17 FebruaryMing forces conquer Fujian and capture Chen Youding, who is executed[19]
1 MarchMing forces conquer Shandong[16]
16 AprilMing forces capture Kaifeng[16]
18 AprilMing forces reach Guangzhou and receive He Zhen's surrender[16]
25 AprilMing forces defeat Köke Temür and capture Luoyang[16]
26 MayMing forces capture Wuzhou[16]
JulyMing forces conquer Guangxi[16]
20 SeptemberMing forces capture Daidu (renamed Beiping) and the Yuan court flees to Inner Mongolia; so ends the Yuan dynasty[14]
NovemberMing forces capture Baoding[20]
26 DecemberMing forces capture Zhaozhou[20]
DecemberMing forces capture Pingding[20]
Crouching-tiger cannons are employed by the Ming army.[21]
The Guozijian is created[13]
13699 JanuaryMing forces capture Taiyuan[20]
3 MarchMing forces capture Datong[20]
MarchSong Lian and Wang Yi start compiling the History of Yuan[22]
18 AprilMing forces conquer Shanxi and Li Siqi flees to Lintao[23]
21 MayLi Siqi surrenders to Ming forces[23]
23 MayMing forces capture Lanzhou[23]
8 JuneMing forces capture Pingliang[23]
20 JulyMing forces capture Shangdu[23]
22 SeptemberMing forces capture Qingyang[23]
Construction of the Central Capital (Fengyang) begins[24]

1370s
YearDateEvent
1370JanuaryKöke Temür lays siege to Lanzhou but fails to take it[25]
Ming forces defeat Köke Temür at Gongchang but fail to capture him[26]
5 JuneThe Hongwu Emperor authorizes the first Ming imperial examination[27]
10 JuneMing forces capture Yingchang[28]
JuneThe Hongwu Emperor bans White Lotus and Manichaean sects[29]
Gunpowder is corned to strengthen the explosive power of land mines in the Ming dynasty.[30]
Cannon projectiles transition from stone to iron ammunition in the Ming dynasty.[31]
137118 MayMing forces capture Wenzhou[32]
JulyMing forces capture Hanzhou[33]
3 AugustMing Sheng surrenders Sichuan to the Ming dynasty[34]
Registered students at the Guozijian reach 3,728[27]
1372AprilMing forces defeat Köke Temür at the Tuul River[35]
Ming forces are routed at Karakorum[35]
Ming forces capture Yongchang and conquer Juyan[36]
Registered students at the Guozijian reach 10,000[27]
Cannons made specifically for naval usage appear in the Ming dynasty.[37]
1373MarchThe Hongwu Emperor suspends imperial examinations[27]
29 NovemberMing forces defeat Köke Temür at Huairou[36]
The Hongwu Emperor limits tribute missions from Goryeo to once every three years[38]
Ming officials draw up the first "house law" in Chinese history[39]
1375Ming starts issuing a new note called the Da Ming Baochao[40]
The Hongwu Emperor halts constructions at Fengyang due to expenses and waste; construction plans shift to Nanjing[24]
1376MarchMing forces defeat Bayan Temür[41]
JulyMing forces defeat Bayan Temür again[41]
22 OctoberThe Hongwu Emperor announces that he will accept straightforward criticism of his rule from officials[42]
Ye Boju is starved to death in prison for criticizing the emperor[42]
The Hongwu Emperor executes all officials connected to the "Case of the Pre-stamped Documents"[43]
1377MayMing forces invade Qinghai[41]
Palace construction in Nanjing is completed and the city is designated "Jingshi" (Capital)[44]
1378Wu Mian rebellion: The Kam people rebel[45]
1379FebruaryMing forces defeat Tibetans in Gansu[46]
Champa sends tribute to Nanjing[47]

1380s
YearDateEvent
1380Hu Weiyong plots to assassinate the Hongwu Emperor but gets arrested; the ensuing investigations lead to the execution of roughly 15,000 people[27]
"Wasp nest" rocket launchers are manufactured for the Ming army.[48]
1381DecemberMing conquest of Yunnan: Ming forces take Qujing[49]
1382AprilMing conquest of Yunnan: Ming forces conquer Yunnan[50]
1384AprilThe Hongwu Emperor relocates government agencies from the palace to outside the city walls of Nanjing[51]
1385Wu Mian rebellion: The Kam rebellion is defeated[52]
The imperial examinations are reestablished[27]
Guo Huan is executed for embezzling 7 million piculs of grain[51]
1386JanuaryMing–Mong Mao War: Si Lunfa of Mong Mao rebels[53]
1387OctoberMing campaign against the Uriankhai: Naghachu surrenders to Ming forces[54]
1388MayBattle of Buir Lake: Ming forces defeat Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür[55]
Ming–Mong Mao War: Mong Mao is defeated by the Ming artillery corps utilizing volley fire[56]
1389JanuaryMing forces defeat Yi rebels in Yuezhou[57]
DecemberMing–Mong Mao War: Si Lunfa surrenders to the Ming dynasty[57]

1390s
YearDateEvent
1390AprilNayir Bukha and Yaozhu surrender to Ming forces[58]
1391MayAjashiri rebels and is suppressed[59]
Ming forces briefly occupy Hami and retreat[60]
13925 AugustI Seonggye ousts Wang Yo and becomes Taejo of Joseon; so ends Goguryeo[38]
1393Ming forces sack Hami[61]
1394Tributary relations between Ming and Joseon are normalized[62]
1396AprilMing forces defeat Bolin Temür[63]
1397OctoberLin Kuan rebellion: A Kam rebellion is defeated[64]
DecemberMing–Mong Mao Intervention: Si Lunfa is deposed and requests Ming aid in restoring him to power[65]
1398JanuaryMing–Mong Mao Intervention: Si Lunfa is restored to power[66]
24 MayThe Hongwu Emperor becomes ill[67]
24 JuneThe Hongwu Emperor dies[68]
30 JuneZhu Yunwen becomes the Jianwen Emperor[67]
The Jianwen Emperor eliminates the princedoms of Zhu Gui, Zhu Bo, Zhu Fu, and Zhu Pian[69]
Last recorded instance of human sacrifice in China[70]
1399JuneThe Jianwen Emperor returns Zhu Di's sons[69]
JulyA military official seizes two of Zhu Di's junior officials on the charge of sedition[71]
5 AugustJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di launches an offensive on neighboring counties[71]
25 SeptemberJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di defeats a 130,000 strong army sent by the Jianwen Emperor[72]
12 NovemberJingnan Campaign: The Jianwen Emperor's forces lay siege to Beiping but are forced to retreat three weeks later[73]

15th century

1400s
YearDateEvent
1400JanuaryJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di invades Shanxi[73]
18 MayJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di's forces deal heavy casualties upon the imperial army[73]
8 JuneJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di lays siege to Dezhou[73]
4 SeptemberJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di lifts the siege of Dezhou and returns to Beiping[73]
14019 JanuaryJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di's forces fall to explosives and suffer heavy casualties in Shandong, forcing their retreat[74]
5 AprilJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di's forces deal a heavy defeat to the imperial army near Dezhou[74]
AugustJingnan Campaign: The imperial army forces Zhu Di to retreat north to Beiping[74]
AugustThe Jianwen Emperor restricts the size of Buddhist and Taoist landholdings[75]
OctoberJingnan Campaign: Imperial forces are expelled from the Beiping region[74]
1402JanuaryJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di conquers northwestern Shandong[76]
3 MarchJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di takes Xuzhou[76]
AprilJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di defeats imperial troops in Suzhou[76]
23 MayJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di is repulsed by imperial troops in Anhui[76]
28 MayJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di defeats imperial forces at Lingbi[76]
7 JuneJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di's forces cross the Huai River[76]
17 JuneJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di takes Yangzhou[76]
1 JulyJingnan Campaign: Zhu Di is stopped at the Changjiang across from Nanjing[76]
3 JulyJingnan Campaign: Assistant chief commissioner Chen Xuan defects to Zhu Di and rebel forces cross the Changjiang[76]
13 JulyJingnan Campaign: Zhu Hui opens the Jinchuan Gate of Nanjing to lets Zhu Di in without a fight; the Jianwen Emperor disappears and his family is incarcerated[77]
17 JulyZhu Di ascends the throne as the Yongle Emperor[77]
SeptemberThe Yongle Emperor commissions the Yongle Encyclopedia[78]
1403FebruaryThe Yongle Emperor designates Beiping the "Northern Capital", Beijing[79]
AprilThe Yongle Emperor settles loyal Uriankhai near Daning[80]
4 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Orders are issued for the construction of 200 "seagoing transport ships"[81]
DecemberThe Yongle Emperor creates the Jianzhou Guard[82]
Japanese missions to Ming China: Ashikaga Yoshimitsu sends an embassy to the Ming dynasty declaring himself "your subject, the King of Japan", and receives trading privileges[83]
1404MarchTreasure voyages: Orders are issued for the construction of 50 "seagoing ships"[84]
JulyEngke Temiir of Kara Del receives the title of prince from the Ming court[85]
OctoberTrần Thiêm Bình arrives in Nanjing and requests the Ming dynasty to restore him to the throne of the Trần dynasty[86]
DecemberTamerlane launches an invasion of the Ming dynasty but dies on the way[85]
Empirewide imperial examinations are resumed[87]
10,000 households from Shanxi are relocated to Beijing[79]
140511 JulyTreasure voyages: Zheng He and 27,800 men depart from Nanjing on 255 ships, of which 62 are treasure ships, "bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold brocade, patterned silks, and colored silk gauze, according to their status."[88]
Construction of new palace buildings in Beijing begins[79]
14064 AprilTrần Thiêm Bình and his Ming escort are ambushed and killed while crossing into Lạng Sơn[86]
19 NovemberMing–Hồ War: Ming forces invade Đại Ngu[86]
13 DecemberMing–Hồ War: Ming forces capture Đa Bang and Thăng Long[86]
Treasure voyages: Treasure fleet visits Malacca and Java before heading up the Straits of Malacca to Aru, Samudera Pasai Sultanate, and Lambri, where the people are described as "very honest and genuine," and from there 3 days to the Andaman Islands, and then 8 more days to the west coast of Ceylon where the king reacts with hostility. The fleet departs for Calicut, which is described as "the Great country of the Western Ocean"[89]
1407Treasure voyages: Treasure fleet defeats Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet at Palembang and installs Shi Jinqing as "grand chieftain ruling over the native people of that place"[90]
13 MarchMing–Hồ War: Hồ Quý Ly's counteroffensive against Ming forces fails[86]
AprilDeshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama arrives in Nanjing to perform religious ceremonies[91]
16 JuneMing–Hồ War: Hồ Quý Ly and his son are captured and sent to Nanjing[86]
5 JulyFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam: The Yongle Emperor announces the formal incorporation of Jiaozhi into the Ming dynasty[86]
2 OctoberTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet arrives back at Nanjing[92]
5 OctoberTreasure voyages: Wang Hao is ordered to refit 249 "sea transport ships" in "preparation for embassies to the countries of the Western Ocean"[93]
23 OctoberTreasure voyages: The Yongle Emperor issues orders for the second voyage and to confer formal investiture on the king of Calicut[94]
Treasure voyages: The Yongle Emperor summons Javanese envoys to demand restitution for killing 710 Chinese and settles for 10,000 ounces of gold[95]
30 OctoberTreasure voyages: A eunuch Grand Director departs with an imperial letter for the king of Champa[94]
Treasure voyages: Zheng He departs with a fleet of 249 ships and takes a route similar to the first voyage with the addition of stops at Jiayile, Abobadan, Ganbali, Quilon, and Cochin[96]
DecemberThe Yongle Encyclopedia is completed[97]
Ironwood wadding is added to Ming cannons, increasing their effectiveness.[98]
140814 FebruaryTreasure voyages: Orders for the construction of 48 treasure ships are issued from the Ministry of Works in Nanjing[99]
5 JulyFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam: Ming troops seize 13,600,000 tons of rice; 235,900 cattles and livestock and vast amounts of materials in Vietnam[100]
SeptemberFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam: Trần Ngỗi rebels in Jiaozhi[86]
1409JanuaryTreasure voyages: Orders are issued for the third voyage[101]
15 FebruaryTreasure voyages: The Galle Trilingual Inscription is produced[102]
JuneOirats receives princely titles from the Ming court[85]
summerTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet returns to China[96]
23 SeptemberBattle of Kherlen: Ming forces are defeated by Öljei Temür Khan[103]
OctoberTreasure voyages: Zheng He departs with 27,000 men, taking the usual route[102]
DecemberFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam: Ming forces capture Trần Ngỗi but Trần Quý Khoáng becomes leader of the rebels[104]

1410s
YearDateEvent
141015 JuneFirst Mongol Campaign: The Yongle Emperor defeats Öljei Temür Khan on the banks of the Onon River[103]
JulyFirst Mongol Campaign: Ming forces defeat Arughtai east of the Greater Khingan and withdraw to Nanjing[103]
Ming–Kotte War: Treasure fleet lands at Galle in Ceylon and captures King Vijayabahu VI of the Kingdom of Gampola[102]
1411JulyDredging and reconstruction of the Grand Canal begins[105]
6 JulyTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet returns to Nanjing[106]
The Yongle Emperor sends Yishiha to explore northern Manchuria[82]
Ashikaga Yoshimochi refuses the Yongle Emperor's request to suppress Japanese pirates[107]
141218 DecemberTreasure voyages:The Yongle Emperor issues orders for the fourth voyage[108]
Shells are used as ammunition in the Ming dynasty.[109]
1413autumnTreasure voyages: Zheng He departs from Nanjing and takes the usual route with the addition of 4 new destinations: the Maldives, Bitra, Chetlat Island, and Hormuz, which is given the following description: "Foreign ships from every place, together with foreign merchants traveling by land, all come to this territory in order to gather together and buy and sell, and therefore the people of this country are all rich"[110]
Lopön Chenpo Gushri Lodrö Gyaltsen visits Nanjing[111]
Yongning Temple Stele: Ming dynasty sends Yishiha to the Nurgan Regional Military Commission to create postal stations and spread Buddhism[112]
141430 MarchFourth Chinese domination of Vietnam: Trần Quý Khoáng is captured[104]
AprilSecond Mongol Campaign: Ming forces engage Oirats at the Tuul River, suffering heavy casualties, but ultimately prevail through the use of heavy cannon bombardments[113]
Chöje Shakya Yeshe visits Nanjing[111]
1415Treasure voyages: Treasure fleet captures Sekandar, a rebel against Zain al-'Abidin, king of the Samudera Pasai Sultanate[114]
JuneThe Grand Canal is reconstructed[115]
12 AugustTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet arrives back in Nanjing[116]
13 AugustTreasure voyages: Zheng He's colleague is sent on a mission bearing gifts to Bengal[116]
141619 NovemberTreasure voyages: The Yongle Emperor bestows gifts upon ambassadors from 18 countries[117]
19 DecemberTreasure voyages: The Yongle Emperor issues orders for the fifth voyage[118]
1417Lam Sơn uprising: Lê Lợi leads an insurrection against the Ming dynasty[104]
autumnTreasure voyages: Zheng He departs China taking the previous route to Hormuz, and then Aden, Mogadishu, Barawa, Zhubu, and Malindi[119]
14198 AugustTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet returns to China
20 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Ambassadors present exotic animals to the Ming court including a giraffe imported from Somalia by Bengalis[120]
2 OctoberTreasure voyages: Orders are issued for the construction of 41 treasure ships[99]
During the Lantern Festival, the Ming imperial palace puts on a display of pyrotechnics involving rockets running along wires which light up lanterns, illuminating the palace.[121]

1420s
YearDateEvent
1420Forbidden City: Construction of the Altar of Heaven is completed[122]
28 OctoberBeijing officially becomes the capital of the Ming dynasty[122]
14213 MarchTreasure voyages: Orders are issued for the sixth voyage and envoys from 16 countries including Hormuz are given gifts of paper and coin money, and ceremonial robes and linings[123]
14 MayTreasure voyages: The Yongle Emperor orders the suspension of the treasure voyages[124]
10 NovemberTreasure voyages: Orders are issued to Zheng He to provide Hong Bao and envoys from 16 countries passage back to their countries; the treasure fleet takes its usual route to Ceylon where it splits up and heads for the Maldives, Hormuz, and the Arabian states of Djofar, Lasa, and Aden, and the two African states of Mogadishu and Barawa; Zheng He visits Ganbali[125]
1422Treasure voyages: Treasure fleet regroups at Samudera Pasai Sultanate and visit Siam before heading back to China[125]
AprilThird Mongol Campaign: Ming forces are dispatched against Arughtai but fail to engage him in combat and return to Beijing[113]
3 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet returns to China bringing envoys from Siam, Samudera Pasai Sultanate, and Aden[126]
1423AugustFourth Mongol Campaign: The Yongle Emperor launches an offensive against Arughtai only to find out he had already been defeated by the Oirats[127]
142427 FebruaryTreasure voyages: Zheng He is sent on a diplomatic mission to Palembang to confer "a gauze cap, a ceremonial robe with floral gold woven into gold patterns in the silk, and a silver seal" on Shi Jinqing's son Shi Jisun[128]
AprilFifth Mongol Campaign: The Yongle Emperor leads an expedition against the remnants of Arughtai's horde but fails to find them[127]
12 AugustThe Yongle Emperor dies[129]
7 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Zhu Gaozhi becomes the Hongxi Emperor and terminates the treasure voyages[129]
Metropolitan exam graduates fill posts down to the county magistrate[87]
142529 MayThe Hongxi Emperor dies[130]
27 JuneZhu Zhanji becomes the Xuande Emperor[131]
2 SeptemberZhu Gaoxu rebels[132]
22 SeptemberZhu Gaoxu is defeated[133]
1426Ming dynasty sends Yishiha to the Wild Jurchens to construct shipyards and warehouses[112]
5 OctoberLam Sơn uprising: Lê Lợi's forces inflict heavy casualties on Ming attacks in Battle of Tốt Động – Chúc Động[134]
winterLam Sơn uprising: Lam Sơn forces drive out the Ming army from most of the Red River Delta and Northern Vietnam[135]
142710 OctoberLam Sơn uprising: Ming reinforcements are encircled and defeated in Lạng Sơn[136][134]
14 DecemberLam Sơn uprising: Ming forces are withdrawn from Jiaozhi[104]
142825 MarchTreasure voyages: The Xuande Emperor orders Zheng He to supervise the reconstruction of the Great Baoen Temple[137]
29 AprilLê Lợi reestablished the kingdom of Đại Việt under Later Lê dynasty
OctoberUriankhai raid Ming borders and the Xuande Emperor personally leads troops to repel them[138]
1429The Xuande Emperor conducts a major military review on the outskirts of Beijing[139]
Mounted infantry carrying hand cannons are employed by the Ming army.[140]

1430s
YearDateEvent
1430MayThe Xuande Emperor orders a tax reduction on all imperial lands[141]
29 JuneTreasure voyages: The Xuande Emperor issues orders for the seventh voyage[142]
143119 JanuaryTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet departs from Nanjing[143]
14 MarchTreasure voyages: Liujiagang Inscription is erected[144]
12 JuneVietnamese emperor Lê Thái Tổ of the Lê dynasty offers a nominate tributary relation with Ming China and was titled King of Annam by the Ming emperor.[145]
DecemberTreasure voyages: The Changle Inscription is erected and the fleet departs from Changle[144]
143212 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet arrives at Samudera Pasai Sultanate and Hong Bao and Ma Huan detach from the fleet to visit Bengal[146][147]
Ming dynasty sends Yishiha to present seals to Ming-allied Jurchens and to repair the Yongning Temple[112]
1433Treasure voyages: Zheng He dies[148]
Treasure voyages: Hong Bao and Ma Huan arrive in Calicut and send seven men to Mecca while Hong Bao visits Djofar, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, and Barawa before heading back to China[149]
9 MarchTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet departs from Hormuz and heads back to China[150]
JuneJapanese missions to Ming China: Relations between Ming and Japan are renewed[151]
7 JulyTreasure voyages: Treasure fleet arrives back in China[152]
14 SeptemberTreasure voyages: Envoys from Samudera Pasai Sultanate, Calicut, Cochin, Ceylon, Djofar, Aden, Coimbatore, Hormuz, Kayal, and Mecca present tribute[153]
Treasure voyages: Ma Huan publishes his Yingya Shenglan[154]
1434Treasure voyages: Gong Zhen publishes his Xiyang Fanguo Zhi[154]
143531 JanuaryThe Xuande Emperor dies and Empress Zhang (Hongxi) becomes regent for the Zhengtong Emperor[155]
The Northern China Plain and Shandong suffer from drought and plagues[156]
1436Treasure voyages: Ming dynasty bans building seagoing ships[157]
Treasure voyages: Fei Xin publishes his Xingcha Shenglan[157]
Flooding strikes northern Jiangsu, the Northern China Plain and Shandong[156]
1437Shanxi and Shaanxi experience drought[156]
Flooding strikes northern Jiangsu[156]
14388 DecemberLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Ming carries out a punitive expedition against Si Renfa of Mong Mao for attacking neighboring tusi, but fails to defeat him[158]
1439Flooding strikes the northern China Plain and Shandong[156]

1440s
YearDateEvent
1440Flooding strikes Suzhou, Jiangnan, the northern China Plain and Shandong[156]
Famine strikes Zhejiang[156]
144127 FebruaryLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Ming forces attack Mong Mao[159]
Flooding strikes the northern China Plain and Shandong[156]
Famine strikes Zhejiang[156]
1442JanuaryLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Mong Mao is defeated but Si Renfa escapes to Ava[160]
20 NovemberEmpress Zhang (Hongxi) dies[161]
1443MarchLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Ming forces defeat Si Jifa but fail to capture him[162]
1444Famine strikes Shanxi and Shaanxi[156]
Flooding strikes northern Jiangsu[156]
1445AugustLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Ava hands over Si Renfa to Ming in return for their support in attacking Hsenwi[163]
Drought and a plague epidemic strike Zhejiang[156]
1446JanuaryLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Si Renfa is executed.[163]
Floods strike Jiangnan[156]
1447Ye Zongliu rebels with a group of silver miners in Zhejiang[164]
Famine strikes northern Jiangsu[156]
1448MarchDeng Maoqi rebels with a group of tenant farmers northwest of the Fujian and Jiangxi border[164]
DecemberMing forces kill Ye Zongliu, but his rebels remain intact and retreat further south to siege Chuzhou[165]
1448 Yellow River flood: Yellow River dikes burst[164]
Drought and locust plague strike northwest China[156]
Drought strikes Jiangnan[156]
1449MarchLuchuan–Pingmian campaigns: Ming forces invade Mong Yang for harboring Si Jifa, but he manages to escape again[166]
MayDeng Maoqi's rebels are defeated[165]
JulyTumu Crisis: Esen Taishi of the Oirats and de facto ruler of the Northern Yuan launches an invasion of the Ming dynasty[167]
4 AugustTumu Crisis: The Zhengtong Emperor departs from Beijing to personally confront Esen Taishi[168]
30 AugustTumu Crisis: The Ming rearguard is defeated[169]
AugustYe Zongliu's rebels are defeated[165]
1 SeptemberTumu Crisis: The Ming army is annihilated and the Zhengtong Emperor is captured by Esen Taishi[170]
23 SeptemberZhu Qiyu becomes the Jingtai Emperor[171]
27 OctoberEsen Taishi lays siege to Beijing but fails to take it and withdraws after 5 days[172]
Yellow River dikes burst again causing the river to change course slightly[164]

1450s
YearDateEvent
145019 SeptemberThe Zhengtong Emperor is released and arrives back in Beijing, where he is kept under house arrest by the Jingtai Emperor[173]
Yao and Miao people rebel in Guizhou and Huguang[174]
Famine strikes Shandong[174]
14521452 Yellow River floods: Yellow River dikes burst[175]
Yao and Miao rebels are suppressed[174]
Northern China experiences flooding[174]
1454Unusually heavy snowfall causes starvation in Suzhou and Hanzhou[176]
1455Xu Youzhen finishes repairs on the Yellow River dikes[175]
Widespread drought affects Central China[176]
1456Miao people in Huguang rebel and are suppressed[174]
145711 FebruaryThe former emperor is reinstated by the military and becomes the Tianshun Emperor[177]

1460s
YearDateEvent
14617 AugustRebellion of Cao Qin: Cao Qin rebels and tries to storm Beijing but gets arrested and is forced to commit suicide[178]
146423 FebruaryThe Tianshun Emperor dies and Zhu Qianshen becomes the Chenghua Emperor[179]
Hou Dagou of the Yao people rebels in Guangxi[180]
Treasure voyages: Documents of the treasure voyages are removed from the archives of the Ministry of War and destroyed by Liu Daxia on the basis that they were "deceitful exaggerations of bizarre things far removed from the testimony of people's ears and eyes," and that "the expeditions of Sanbao to the Western Ocean wasted tens of myriads of money and grain, and moreover the people who met their deaths [on these expeditions] may be counted in the myriads. Although he returned with wonderful precious things, what benefit was it to the state? This was merely an action of bad government of which ministers should severely disapprove. Even if the old archives were still preserved they should be destroyed in order to suppress [a repetition of these things] at the root."[181]
1466JanuaryMing forces defeat and capture Hou Dagou but the rebellion continues anyway[180]
The Ming execute Dongshan of the Left Jianzhou Guard[182]
Miao people rebel in Hunan as well as the Sichuan-Guizhou border and are suppressed[183]
Liu Tong rebels near Xiangyang and is defeated[184]
1467A Ming-Joseon expedition defeats the Jianzhou Jurchens and kill Li Manzhu[182]
1468MayMongols rebel at Guyuan[185]
12 May1,000 Vietnamese troops occupy the border town Pingxiang, Guangxi[186]
1469The Mongol rebellion at Guyuan is suppressed[185]

1470s
YearDateEvent
1470The governor of Liaodong, Chen Yue, attacks the Jurchens and demands bribes from Jurchen embassies[182]
Remnants of Liu Tong's rebels rebel again[184]
1471Liu Tong's rebels are defeated[184]
1473Ming forces launch an attack on Hami in conjunction with Mongol allies but retreat when the Mongols abandon them[187]
1474Yu Zijun directs the reconstruction and extension of the Great Wall of China to seal off Ordos from the south[188]
1475Miao people rebel in Hunan and are suppressed[183]
1476JuneVagrant population around Xiangyang rebel until the government allows them to claim lands with reduced taxes[189]
1479Miao people rebel in Sichuan[190]
28 AprilVietnamese emperor Lê Hạo of the Lê dynasty sends gold, silver utensils, local silk products to the Chinese court as gifts[191]

1480s
YearDateEvent
1485Number of eunuchs passes 10,000[192]
14871 SeptemberThe Chenghua Emperor falls ill[193]
9 SeptemberThe Chenghua Emperor dies[193]
17 SeptemberZhu Youtang becomes the Hongzhi Emperor[193]

1490s
YearDateEvent
1492Europe reaches parity with China in health, fertility rate, life expectancy, and human capital[194]
14941494 Yellow River flood: Yellow River floods but Liu Daxia successfully directs the river to flow south of Shandong, stabilizing the course of the Yellow River until the 19th century[195]
National military reforms switch to recruiting volunteers for local units[196]
1495Ming forces briefly occupy Hami before reinforcements from Turpan force them to retreat[197]
1496Japanese missions to Ming China: Japanese envoys kill several people on their return trip from Beijing[198]
1499A trade embargo on Turpan forces them to return Hami to Uyghur control[197]
Yi people rebel in Guizhou[199]

16th century

1500s
YearDateEvent
1500Li people rebel on Hainan[200]
1502Yi rebels in Guizhou are suppressed[199]
1503Li rebels are suppressed[200]
1504Datong is raided by Mongols[201]
15058 JuneThe Hongzhi Emperor dies[202]
19 JuneZhu Houzhao becomes the Zhengde Emperor[202]
The Zhengde Emperor starts using eunuchs as military and fiscal intendants[203]
1506MayThe Ministry of Revenue is ordered to investigate the lack of revenue[203]
JulyThe Minister of Revenue, Han Wen, complains about the emperor's expenditures using the ministerial treasuries[204]
28 OctoberThe Minister of Revenue petitions the emperor to execute all the eunuchs in his personal employ, but the emperor refuses, and as a result all the grand secretaries resign[205]
The Zhengde Emperor takes to wandering the streets of Beijing in disguise[203]
1507September350,000 ounces of silver are spent on lanterns for the Lantern Festival[205]
1509AugustTwo garrisons in Liaodong revolt and are quelled after 2,500 ounces of silver are distributed among them[206]

1510s
YearDateEvent
151012 MayPrince of Anhua rebellion: Zhu Zhifan rebels in Shanxi[207]
30 MayPrince of Anhua rebellion: Zhu Zhifan is captured[207]
Dayan Khan conquers the Ordos Loop[208]
1511FebruaryBandits around Beijing revolt[209]
OctoberBandits burn imperial grain carriages around Beijing[209]
Capture of Malacca (1511): The Malacca Sultanate sends a plea for help against the Portuguese[210]
1512JanuaryBandits attack Bazhou[209]
7 SeptemberThe bandit armies are defeated[209]
151410 FebruaryGunpowder tents in the palace courtyard catch fire and destroy the residential palaces[211]
SeptemberThe Zhengde Emperor is badly mauled by a tiger[212]
1515summer30,000 troops from the capital garrisons and Imperial Bodyguard are dispatched to rebuild the palaces[213]
151716 OctoberDayan Khan raids the Ming dynasty[214]
20 OctoberThe Zhengde Emperor repels Dayan Khan's raiding party[215]
Tomé Pires arrives at Guangzhou[210]
1518JanuaryThe Zhengde Emperor imprisons the court at Beijing for not giving him enough money[214]
15199 JulyPrince of Ning rebellion: Zhu Chenhao rebels in Jiangxi[216]
13 JulyPrince of Ning rebellion: Rebel forces capture Jiujiang[217]
23 JulyPrince of Ning rebellion: Rebel forces lay siege to Anqing[217]
9 AugustPrince of Ning rebellion: Rebel forces lift the siege on Anqing[218]
13 AugustPrince of Ning rebellion: Imperial forces capture Nanchang[218]
15 AugustPrince of Ning rebellion: Zhu Chenhao's army is defeated[218]
20 AugustPrince of Ning rebellion: Zhu Chenhao flees from his fleet and is captured[218]

1520s
YearDateEvent
1520JanuaryThe Zhengde Emperor forbids the slaughtering of pigs[219]
MayThe Portuguese bribe a eunuch official in Guangzhou to let them through and Tomé Pires' party arrive at Nanjing[220]
152120 AprilThe Zhengde Emperor dies[220]
21 AprilTomé Pires' party is expelled from Beijing[220]
27 AprilZhu Houcong becomes the Jiajing Emperor[221]
MayBattle of Tunmen: Ming forces expel a Portuguese fleet from Tunmen when they refuse to leave[222]
Palace reconstruction is completed[211]
1522Portuguese are forbidden from trading in Guangzhou[198]
Battle of Shancaowan: A Portuguese fleet runs a Ming blockade near Lantau Island and manages to leave with heavy casualties[223]
1523MayNingbo Incident: The Hosokawa trade mission attacks the Ouchi trade mission and loots Ningbo, seizes ships, and kills a Ming commander before setting sail; the Chinese tributary system loses maritime trade value[224]
The Ming dynasty produces breech-loading swivel guns based on Portuguese designs.[225]
1524AugustThe garrison of Datong rebels[226]
Ming–Turpan conflict: Turpan attacks Ganzhou and is repelled[227]
1525AprilThe Datong rebels are defeated[228]
Jiajing wokou raids: Shuangyu becomes a trading enclave[198]
Some merchants from Fujian are able to speak Formosan languages[229]
1526Famine strikes Beijing[230]
1527Floods sweep through Huguang[230]
1528Ming–Turpan conflict: Turpan's trading privileges are restored[231]
1529Jiajing wokou raids: Several commanders at Wenzhou are exiled for consorting with pirates[232]
An inauspicious comet is sighted[230]

1530s
YearDateEvent
1531Datong comes under raid by Mongols[233]
An inauspicious comet is sighted[230]
1532Jiajing wokou raids: The governor of Guangzhou is recalled for failing to eradicate pirates[232]
A really inauspicious comet is sighted[230]
153324 OctoberThe Datong garrison rebels and is suppressed[228]
1534Jiajing wokou raids: A pirate with over 50 large ships under his command is captured[232]
The Jiajing Emperor stops attending routine court audiences[234]
1535The garrisons at Liaodong and Guangning revolt and are suppressed[235]
1536Mongols raid Shanxi but are repelled[236]
1537Mongols raid Datong[236]
1539Japanese missions to Ming China: Japanese envoys are apprehended and forbidden from trading upon reaching China[237]
The garrison at Liaodong rebels and is suppressed[238]

1540s
YearDateEvent
1540SeptemberThe Jiajing Emperor announces his intention to seclude himself for several years to pursue immortality; a court official says this is nonsense and gets tortured to death[239]
154130 AprilA fire destroys the Imperial Ancestral Temple compound[240]
OctoberAltan Khan raids Shaanxi[241]
Gunpowder is used for hydraulic engineering in the Ming dynasty.[242]
1542JulyAltan Khan raids Shaanxi[241]
4 AugustMing forces are defeated by Altan Khan at Guangwu[241]
8 AugustAltan Khan pillages the suburbs of Taiyuan[241]
Renyin palace rebellion: Consort Fang prevents an assassination on the Jiajing Emperor[243]
The Jiajing Emperor withdraws from his formal duties completely and spends the remainder of his life in the Palace of Everlasting Longevity obsessed with physical immortality through drugs, rituals, and esoteric physical regimens[234]
1543DecemberConstruction on a new Imperial Ancestral Temple begins[240]
Famine strikes Zhejiang[244]
1544Japanese missions to Ming China: Ming officials refuse to meet with Japanese envoys[237]
Famine strikes Zhejiang[244]
1545JanuaryAn outbreak of pestilence occurs in Beijing[241]
AprilDust storms destroy winter wheat and barley crops[241]
JulyThe new Imperial Ancestral Temple is completed[240]
Datong rebels and is suppressed[228]
Japanese missions to Ming China: Wang Zhi returns to Japan with the Japanese mission and leads a trade mission to Shuangyu[237]
1547Jiajing wokou raids: A censor reports that piracy on the southeast coast is out of control[245]
1548FebruaryJiajing wokou raids: Pirates raid Ningbo and Taizhou[245]
AprilJiajing wokou raids: Ming forces attack Shuangyu but many of the ships in the harbor escape[245]
JuneMongols defeat Ming forces at Xuanfu[246]
OctoberMongols raid Huailai[246]
The Ming army starts fielding matchlocks.[247]
1549MarchAltan Khan defeats Ming forces at Xuanfu but suffers heavy casualties[246]
Jiajing wokou raids: Ming forces attack a large merchant fleet anchored off the coast of southern Fujian[248]

1550s
YearDateEvent
15501 OctoberAltan Khan pillages the suburbs of Beijing[246]
6 OctoberMing forces are defeated by Mongols[249]
Towns and villages in Zhejiang erect palisades in response to brigands[244]
1551Fishing boats are forbidden from going out to sea[248]
1552AprilMing forces are defeated by Mongols north of Datong[250]
Jiajing wokou raids: Raiding parties attack the coast of Zhejiang[244]
The Jiajing Emperor selects 800 girls between the ages of 8 and 14 for palace service[251]
1553Jiajing wokou raids: Wang Zhi raids the coast of Zhejiang north of Taizhou[244]
1554springSerious epidemics break out in Beijing[252]
MarchJiajing wokou raids: Pirates kill the magistrate of Songjiang and occupy Chongming Island[244]
Luso-Chinese agreement (1554): Leonel de Sousa bribes the vice-commissioner of maritime defense into letting the Portuguese stay at Macau for an annual payment of 500 taels and 20 percent imperial duty on half their products[253]
1555Jiajing wokou raids: Pirates attack Hangzhou[254]
MayJiajing wokou raids: Ming forces defeat a large raiding party north of Jiaxing[254]
The Jiajing Emperor selects 180 girls under the age of 10 for palace service[251]
1556January1556 Shaanxi earthquake: An earthquake devastates Shaanxi, with over 800,000 reported dead[255]
Jiajing wokou raids: Pirates raid the entire coastline from Nanjing to Hangzhou[244]
The Jiajing Emperor asks the Ministry of Rites to find some magical plants to make him immortal[251]
1557MayThe three main audience halls in the Forbidden City are destroyed in a fire[255]
winterSengge, son of Altan Khan, lays siege to a garrison near Datong[255]
1558AprilJiajing wokou raids: Pirates raid Zhejiang and northern Fujian[256]
Sengge retreats upon the arrival of reinforcements[255]
The Ministry of Rites presents 1,860 magical plants to the Jiajing Emperor[257]
Imperial treasuries fall to less than 200,000 ounces of silver[255]
1559summerQi Jiguang begins applying his tactical reforms on newly recruited soldiers[258]
A drought causes starvation in the Changjiang River Delta[259]
DecemberThe Suzhou garrison mutinies[259]
Jiajing wokou raids: Pirates take over Kinmen Island (Quemoy) and launch raids into Fujian and Guangdong[259]

1560s
YearDateEvent
1560MarchThe Nanjing garrison rebels in response to cuts in rations until they're given 40,000 ounces of silver[260]
The Jiajing Emperor suffers from insomnia[261]
Qi Jiguang publishes his Jixiao Xinshu describing the musket volley fire technique and his experience training the Ming army in its use.[262]
1561DecemberThe Forbidden City's residential palace is destroyed in a fire[263]
The Ming dynasty starts producing portable breech-loading firearms.[264][265]
1562JuneThe Forbidden City's residential palace is rebuilt[263]
DecemberJiajing wokou raids: Pirates capture Xinghua[259]
1563MayJiajing wokou raids: Ming forces retake Xinghua and destroy pirate bases in Fujian[259]
Pirate Lin Daoqian retreats to southwestern Taiwan after being chased by Ming naval forces[266]
A walled town is built in Penghu on the orders of a Ming general[267]
1564Eunuchs drop peaches into the Jiajing Emperor's bed and tell him they fell from heaven[268]
The Jiajing Emperor reduces all imperial clansmen to commoner status in response to their demand for stipends[260]
1565The Jiajing Emperor becomes ill[268]
1566Jiajing wokou raids: Ming forces eradicate pirates in Jiangxi and Guangdong[259]
156723 JanuaryThe Jiajing Emperor dies[268]
4 FebruaryZhu Zaihou becomes the Longqing Emperor[269]
The ban on overseas trading is lifted[259]

1570s
YearDateEvent
1570Wang Gao of the Jianzhou Guard raids Ming settlements[270]
15725 JulyThe Longqing Emperor dies[271]
19 JulyZhu Yijun becomes the Wanli Emperor[271]
1573Spanish trade with China begins in Yuegang[272]
1574Li Chengliang kills Wang Gao with the help of Giocangga and Taksi[270]
A wall is erected around Macau[273]
1575Wang Wanggao, a Ming naval officer, arrives at Luzon and returns with a Spanish embassy headed by Martín de Rada; the embassy fails due to the Spanish inability to capture Lin Feng, a Chinese pirate[274]
1576The China-America trade is established[272]
1578Portuguese are allowed to travel to Guangzhou[273]
1579Donglin movement: All private Donglin Academies are shut down[275]

1580s
YearDateEvent
1580Single whip law: Tax laws are simplified[276]
Officials criticize the Wanli Emperor for negligence and the questionable propriety of his personal life[277]
1582Ming forces defeat Atai of the Jianzhou Jurchens, and accidentally kill Giocangga and Taksi, grandfather and father of Nurhaci[278]
The Taicang Treasury accumulates over 6 million taels of silver[279]
A Gregorian calendar more accurate than the Chinese calendar is produced in Europe[280]
1583Matteo Ricci sets up a church in Zhaoqing[281]
1589Bozhou rebellion: Miao people rebel in Bozhou[282]

1590s
YearDateEvent
1590Chinese from Fujian start settling in southwestern Taiwan[283]
1592MarchOrdos Campaign: Liu Dongyang and Pubei rebel in Ningxia[284]
14 JulyOrdos Campaign: Ye Mengxiong brings cannons and additional Miao troops to the siege of Ningxia[285]
23 AugustOrdos Campaign: Dikes around Ningxia are completed[286]
6 SeptemberOrdos Campaign: Ningxia is flooded[287]
25 SeptemberOrdos Campaign: Rebels make one last attempt to break out of Ningxia[287]
12 OctoberOrdos Campaign: The north wall collapses and the rebellion is defeated[288]
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98): Ming forces mobilize to intervene in the Japanese invasion of Joseon[289]
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98): Nurhaci offers to fight the Japanese but is refused; Ming reacts with alarm to the size and quality of Nurhaci's troops[290]
15938 JanuarySiege of Pyongyang (1593): Ming and Joseon forces evict Japanese troops from Pyeongyang[289]
27 JanuaryBattle of Byeokjegwan: An advance Ming scout party is defeated by Japanese forces[291]
Expansion of the Jia Canal begins[292]
Middle and junior grade assignments are assigned by drawing lots[293]
Ming officials issue ten licenses each year for Chinese junks to trade in northern Taiwan[294]
1594Bozhou rebellion: Ming forces are defeated in Sichuan[295]
1596The Wanli Emperor dispatches eunuchs as tax collectors and mining intendants[296]
159717 OctoberBattle of Jiksan: The Japanese advance towards Hanseong is halted by Ming forces[297]
15984 JanuarySiege of Ulsan: Ming and Joseon forces fail to evict the Japanese from Ulsan Castle[298]
OctoberBattle of Sacheon (1598): Ming and Joseon forces fail to evict the Japanese from Sacheon[298]
7 OctoberSiege of Suncheon: Ming and Joseon forces fail to evict the Japanese from Suncheon Castle[298]
16 DecemberBattle of Noryang: Ming and Joseon naval forces defeat the Japanese fleet[298]
24 DecemberJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–98): Japanese forces withdraw from Korea[299]
Bozhou rebellion: The Miao rebellion is suppressed[295]
Mongols kill Li Rusong, the Ming commander-in-chief[300]
Ming cavalry experiments with firing a three-barreled matchlock before using it as a shield while they attack with a saber using their other hand.[301]
Cantonese officials give permission to the Spanish to trade in El Piñal[302]
1599All major ports have senior eunuchs in residence[303]

17th century

1600s
YearDateEvent
1600January 17The Portuguese in Macau attack the Spanish in Lampacau. The Spanish abandons El Piñal.[304]
The size of European book collections surpass that of China[305]
1602Matteo Ricci settles in Beijing to preach Christianity[281]
1603OctoberSangley Rebellion: The Spanish, Japanese, and Filipinos massacre the Chinese population in Manila; the Wanli Emperor blames a eunuch for aggravating the Spanish by asking if they could mine in Cavite[306]
Nurhaci and Ming generals agree to delineate the boundary between their territories[291]
Chinese scholar Chen Di spends some time at the Bay of Tayouan (which Taiwan takes its name from) during a Ming dynasty anti-pirate mission and provides the first significant description of Taiwanese aborigines[307]
1604Donglin movement: The Donglin Academy is founded[308]
1605JuneA thunderbolt knocks down the flagpole at the Altar of Heaven, which is very inauspicious, causing some officials to resign[309]
1606Army officers in Yunnan riot and kill Yang Rong, a eunuch superintendent of mining[303]
Ming muskets are attached with plug bayonets.[310]
1607The first six books of Euclid's Elements are translated into Chinese[311]
1609The Jia Canal is completed[312]

1610s
YearDateEvent
1610Joseph Needham estimates that European civilization surpassed China in astronomy and physics around this time[280]
1615Nurhaci sends his last tributary emissary to Beijing[313]
1616Nurhaci declares the Later Jin, also known as the Amaga Aisin Gurun[314]
16189 MayBattle of Fushun: Later Jin seizes Fushun[315]
summerBattle of Qinghe: Later Jin takes Qinghe[316]
161918 AprilBattle of Sarhū: Ming forces are annihilated by Later Jin[317]
26 JulyBattle of Kaiyuan: Later Jin takes Kaiyuan[318]
3 SeptemberBattle of Tieling: Later Jin takes Tieling[318]
SeptemberThe first Russian envoy, Ivan Petlin, reaches Beijing[319]

1620s
YearDateEvent
162018 AugustThe Wanli Emperor dies[320]
28 AugustZhu Changluo becomes the Taichang Emperor[320]
6 SeptemberThe Taichang Emperor becomes ill[321]
26 SeptemberThe Taichang Emperor dies[321]
1 OctoberZhu Youjiao becomes the Tianqi Emperor[322]
Ming foundries start producing Hongyipao.[323]
16214 MayBattle of Shen-Liao: Later Jin seizes Shenyang[324]
fallShe-An Rebellion: Yi people rebel in Sichuan and Guizhou[325]
DecemberBattle of Fort Zhenjiang: Ming raids into Later Jin are repulsed[326]
162211 MarchBattle of Guangning: Later Jin seizes Guangning[326]
24 JuneBattle of Macau: A Dutch attack on Macau is repelled by the Portuguese[327]
JuneWhite Lotus rebels appear in Shandong[328]
AugustWhite Lotus rebels block the Grand Canal[329]
The Dutch start building a fort at Penghu[330]
OctoberSino-Dutch conflicts: Dutch vessels start raiding Ming trading ships[327]
NovemberWhite Lotus rebels are defeated[329]
An earthquake strikes Gansu, killing 12,000[328]
1623OctoberSino-Dutch conflicts: A Dutch raid on Xiamen is repulsed[327]
She-An Rebellion: Ming forces are defeated[325]
The Yellow River bursts its dikes and flood Xuzhou[328]
162426 AugustSino-Dutch conflicts: Ming forces evict the Dutch from Penghu and they retreat to Taiwan, settling near the Bay of Tayouan next to a pirate village[327]
She-An Rebellion: Ming forces defeat rebels but are unable to decisively quell the rebellion[325]
1625The Donglin movement is purged[331]
162610 FebruaryBattle of Ningyuan: A Later Jin attack on Ningyuan is repulsed and Nurhaci is wounded and dies[332]
1627springBattle of Ning-Jin: Later Jin forces under Hong Taiji attack Jinzhou but are repelled
30 SeptemberThe Tianqi Emperor dies[333]
2 OctoberZhu Youjian becomes the Chongzhen Emperor[334]
1628springDrought hits Shanxi[335]
AugustPirate lord Zheng Zhilong surrenders to the Ming[336]
1629winterJisi Incident: Later Jin forces break through the Great Wall and loot the region around Beijing[337]
The Chongzhen Emperor cuts funding for the imperial post service, causing out of work postal workers to rebel in Shanxi[335]
She-An Rebellion: The rebels are defeated[325]

1630s
YearDateEvent
1630summerJisi Incident: Later Jin forces retreat[337]
1631AprilRebels capture Pingdu[338]
21 NovemberBattle of Dalinghe: Later Jin seizes Dalinghe[339]
163222 FebruaryWuqiao Mutiny: Troops from Shandong mutiny and capture Dengzhou[338]
Spanish Manila trade with China reaches 2 million pesos per year[335]
Ming defensive planners build some star forts but they don't catch on in China.[340]
1633AprilWuqiao Mutiny: Shandong rebels defect to Later Jin[338]
7 JulyBattle of Liaoluo Bay: Ming dockyards start construction of multidecked broadside sailing ships capable of holding large cannons under the supervision of Zheng Zhilong; they get blown up by a Dutch surprise attack[341]
summerSiege of Lüshun: Later Jin seizes Lüshun[342]
22 OctoberBattle of Liaoluo Bay: Ming forces defeat a Dutch pirate fleet near Kinmen Island (Quemoy)[343]
27 DecemberRebels take Mianzhi[344]
163414 SeptemberRebellion breaks out at Tongcheng[345]
1635MarchRebels take Fengyang[346]
AugustMing forces are defeated by rebels in Gansu[346]
SeptemberLi Zicheng rebels in Shanxi[345]
Telescopes are used for aiming artillery in the Ming dynasty.[347]
1636Hong Taiji proclaims the Qing dynasty[348]
1638Qing dynasty conquers Shandong[349]
Ming forces are defeated on the Shanxi-Henan border[349]
1639The Spanish and Filipinos massacre 20,000 Chinese in Luzon[350]
Portuguese merchants from Macau are banned from Nagasaki[350]
Zhejiang experiences drought[351]

1640s
YearDateEvent
1640summerRebels enter Sichuan[349]
1641Li Zicheng enters Henan[350]
MarchLi Zicheng takes Luoyang[350]
Rebel leader Zhang Xianzhong takes Xiangyang[350]
15 JulyZhang Xianzhong takes Wuchang[352]
OctoberZhang Xianzhong takes Changsha and Hengzhou[353]
Li Zicheng takes Kaifeng[353]
Locusts attack Zhejiang[351]
16428 AprilBattle of Song-Jin: Qing dynasty takes Jinzhou[354]
Floods strike Zhejiang[351]
Composite metal cannons are produced in the Ming dynasty.[323][355][356]
Li Zicheng's rebels manage to create a two zhang breach in Ming fortifications using cannons.[357]
1643JanuaryLi Zicheng takes Xiangyang[353]
NovemberLi Zicheng takes Xi'an[354]
Zhang Xianzhong declares the Xi dynasty in Huguang[358]
16448 FebruaryLi Zicheng proclaims his Shun dynasty in Xi'an[359]
25 AprilLi Zicheng takes Beijing and the Chongzhen Emperor hangs himself[360]
27 MayBattle of Shanhai Pass: Wu Sangui lets the Qing forces through the Great Wall and their forces defeat Li Zicheng in battle, after which Li retreats to Beijing[361]
5 JuneQing dynasty takes Beijing and Li Zicheng flees[361]
19 JuneZhu Yousong becomes the Hongguang Emperor of Southern Ming in Nanjing[362]
Zhang Xianzhong relocates to Chengdu and proceeds to massacre the Sichuan population[358]
1645JanuaryQing forces capture Luoyang[363]
20 MayQing forces capture Yangzhou[363]
16 JuneQing forces capture Nanjing and the Hongguang Emperor[364]
JuneLi Zicheng dies[365]
6 JulyQing forces capture Hangzhou[364]
21 JulyAll nonclerical adult male citizens are ordered to adopt the Manchu queue to show their allegiance to the Qing dynasty[366]
18 AugustZhu Yujian becomes the Longwu Emperor at Fuzhou[367]
AugustZhu Yihai becomes regent of Ming at Shaoxing, taking control of Ming loyalists at Yuyao and Taizhou[367]
1646FebruaryMing forces are defeated in Jiangnan[368]
10 JulyQing forces defeat the Ming army at Tonglu[369]
30 SeptemberQing forces capture Yanping[370]
6 OctoberThe Longwu Emperor is killed by Qing forces[370]
17 OctoberQing forces take Fuzhou[370]
12 DecemberZhu Yuyue becomes the Shaowu Emperor in Guangzhou[371]
24 DecemberZhu Youlang becomes the Yongli Emperor in Zhaoqing[371]
16472 JanuaryZhang Xianzhong is killed by Qing forces but his army occupies Chongqing and then occupies Sichuan under the leadership of Sun Kewang[372]
20 JanuaryQing forces capture Guangzhou and the Shaowu Emperor[373]
5 MarchQing forces conquer Guangdong, half of Guangxi, and Hainan[373]
MarchQing forces take Changsha[374]
springQing forces raid Anping[375]
23 SeptemberQing forces take Wugang[376]
Zhu Yihai conducts raids on the coast of Fujian from island bases[377]
164820 FebruaryMing loyalists rebel at Nanchang and Nanning[378]
14 AprilQing forces fail to take Guilin[376]
164915 JanuaryMing loyalists rebel at Datong[379]
1 MarchQing forces take Nanchang[380]
4 OctoberMing loyalists at Datong are defeated[379]
summerQing forces conquer southern Huguang[381]
24 NovemberQing forces slaughter the population of Guangzhou[382]
27 NovemberQing forces capture Guilin[382]
2 DecemberQing forces capture Zhaoqing and the Yongli Emperor flees[382]

1650s
YearDateEvent
165115 OctoberQing forces capture Zhoushan and Zhu Yihai flees[383]
16527 AugustRebel general Li Dingguo takes Guilin[384]
winterSun Kewang's army is routed by Qing forces[384]
Zhu Yihai settles on Kinmen Island (Quemoy) with the help of Zheng Chenggong and renounces his title as Regent of Ming[385]
1653Li Dingguo retreats to Guangdong[384]
1655Li Dingguo's army is routed by Qing forces[384]
Ming loyalist Zheng Chenggong establishes Xiamen as his base[386]
1656MarchThe Yongli Emperor arrives in Yunnan[387]
9 MayQing forces try to invade Kinmen Island (Quemoy) but their fleet is destroyed in a storm[388]
1657FebruaryMing forces defeat a Qing army near the Changjiang River Delta[388]
OctoberSun Kewang's forces are defeated by Li Dingguo in eastern Yunnan and he retreats to Guizhou[387]
DecemberSun Kewang surrenders to the Qing dynasty[387]
1658JuneZheng Chenggong occupies Wenzhou[389]
16597 JanuaryQing forces advance into Yunnan and the Yongli Emperor flees to Toungoo dynasty[390]
10 MarchQing forces capture Yongchang and defeat Li Dingguo's army, securing Yunnan[390]
JuneThe Yongli Emperor reaches Inwa[391]
10 AugustZheng Chenggong takes Zhenjiang[392]
24 AugustZheng Chenggong lays siege to Nanjing[392]
9 SeptemberZheng Chenggong's army is annihilated and he retreats to Xiamen[393]

1660s
YearDateEvent
1660FebruaryQing forces launch an attack on Kinmen Island (Quemoy) and Xiamen but fail[393]
166121 AprilZheng Chenggong departs from Kinmen Island (Quemoy) for Taiwan[394]
30 AprilZheng Chenggong arrives on the shores of Dutch Formosa[394]
1 MayFort Provintia surrenders to Zheng Chenggong[395]
JunePye Min massacres most of the Yongli Emperor's entourage[396]
166220 JanuaryQing forces advance towards Inwa and force the return of the Yongli Emperor[396]
1 FebruarySiege of Fort Zeelandia: Fort Zeelandia surrenders to Zheng Chenggong[395]
MayThe Yongli Emperor is executed in Yunnan; so ends the Southern Ming resistance on the mainland[396]
23 JuneZheng Chenggong dies and is succeeded by his son Zheng Jing[397]
23 DecemberZhu Yihai dies[397]
1664The Qing dynasty conquers Fujian and Zheng Jing retreats to Taiwan[398]

See also

References
  1. Twitchett 1998, p. 11.
  2. Twitchett 1998, p. 44.
  3. Twitchett 1998, p. 45.
  4. Twitchett 1998, p. 46.
  5. Twitchett 1994, p. 583.
  6. Twitchett 1998, p. 47.
  7. Twitchett 1998, p. 32.
  8. Twitchett 1998, p. 33.
  9. Andrade 2016, p. 66.
  10. Twitchett 1998, p. 41.
  11. Twitchett 1998, p. 51.
  12. Twitchett 1998, p. 34.
  13. Mote 2003, p. 571.
  14. Twitchett 1998, p. 96.
  15. Twitchett 1998, p. 34-35.
  16. Twitchett 1998, p. 97.
  17. Twitchett 1998, p. 37.
  18. Twitchett 1998, p. 57.
  19. Twitchett 1998, p. 24.
  20. Twitchett 1998, p. 115.
  21. Needham 1986, p. 313.
  22. Twitchett 1998, p. 116.
  23. Twitchett 1998, p. 117.
  24. Mote 2003, p. 567.
  25. Twitchett 1998, p. 118.
  26. Twitchett 1998, p. 119.
  27. Mote 2003, p. 572.
  28. Twitchett 1998, p. 120.
  29. Twitchett 1998, p. 122.
  30. Andrade 2016, p. 110.
  31. Andrade 2016, p. 105.
  32. Twitchett 1998, p. 125.
  33. Twitchett 1998, p. 126.
  34. Mote 2003, p. 540.
  35. Twitchett 1998, p. 128.
  36. Twitchett 1998, p. 129.
  37. Needham 1986, p. 296.
  38. Twitchett 1998, p. 166.
  39. Mote 2003, p. 565.
  40. Tsien 1985, p. 100.
  41. Twitchett 1998, p. 130.
  42. Twitchett 1998, p. 136.
  43. Mote 2003, p. 573.
  44. Mote 2003, p. 568.
  45. Geary 2003, p. 8.
  46. Twitchett 1998, p. 139.
  47. Twitchett 1998, p. 140.
  48. Needham 1986, p. 514.
  49. Twitchett 1998, p. 144.
  50. Mote 2003, p. 557.
  51. Twitchett 1998, p. 151.
  52. Geary 2003, p. 10.
  53. Ming 1996, p. 163-164.
  54. Twitchett 1998, p. 158.
  55. Twitchett 1998, p. 159.
  56. Andrade 2016, p. 158.
  57. Twitchett 1998, p. 160.
  58. Twitchett 1998, p. 162.
  59. Twitchett 1998, p. 165.
  60. Twitchett 1998b, p. 247.
  61. Twitchett 1998, p. 257.
  62. Twitchett 1998, p. 168.
  63. Twitchett 1998, p. 178.
  64. Geary 2003, p. 12.
  65. Fernquest 2006, p. 47.
  66. Fernquest 2006, p. 47-8.
  67. Twitchett 1998, p. 181.
  68. Mote 2003, p. 583.
  69. Twitchett 1998, p. 194.
  70. Twitchett 2008, p. 32.
  71. Twitchett 1998, p. 195.
  72. Twitchett 1998, p. 196.
  73. Twitchett 1998, p. 198.
  74. Twitchett 1998, p. 199.
  75. Twitchett 1998, p. 190-191.
  76. Twitchett 1998, p. 200.
  77. Twitchett 1998, p. 201.
  78. Twitchett 1998, p. 220.
  79. Twitchett 1998, p. 238.
  80. Twitchett 1998, p. 222.
  81. Dreyer 2007, p. 104-105.
  82. Twitchett 1998, p. 267.
  83. Twitchett 1998, p. 269.
  84. Dreyer 2007, p. 105.
  85. Twitchett 1998, p. 223.
  86. Twitchett 1998, p. 230.
  87. Twitchett 1998, p. 212.
  88. Dreyer 2007, p. 51-52.
  89. Dreyer 2007, p. 53.
  90. Dreyer 2007, p. 57.
  91. Twitchett 1998, p. 262.
  92. Dreyer 2007, p. 55.
  93. Dreyer 2007, p. 62-63.
  94. Dreyer 2007, p. 59.
  95. Dreyer 2007, p. 63.
  96. Dreyer 2007, p. 64.
  97. Twitchett 1998, p. 221.
  98. Needham 1986, p. 311.
  99. Dreyer 2007, p. 104.
  100. Yong-le: Year 6, Month 6, Day 12
  101. Dreyer 2007, p. 65.
  102. Dreyer 2007, p. 66.
  103. Twitchett 1998, p. 226.
  104. Twitchett 1998, p. 231.
  105. Twitchett 1998, p. 252.
  106. Duyvendak 1938, p. 361.
  107. Twitchett 1998, p. 270.
  108. Dreyer 2007, p. 75.
  109. Needham 1986, p. 264.
  110. Dreyer 2007, p. 77-78.
  111. Twitchett 1998, p. 263.
  112. Twitchett 1998b, p. 264.
  113. Twitchett 1998, p. 227.
  114. Dreyer 2007, p. 79.
  115. Twitchett 1998, p. 239.
  116. Dreyer 2007, p. 81.
  117. Dreyer 2007, p. 82.
  118. Dreyer 2007, p. 76.
  119. Dreyer 2007, p. 83.
  120. Duyvandek 1938, p. 402.
  121. Needham 1986, p. 516.
  122. Twitchett 1998, p. 241.
  123. Dreyer 2007, p. 91.
  124. Dreyer 2007, p. 138.
  125. Dreyer 2007, p. 93.
  126. Dreyer 2007, p. 94.
  127. Twitchett 1998, p. 228.
  128. Dreyer 2007, p. 57-58.
  129. Dreyer 2007, p. 137.
  130. Dreyer 2007, p. 140.
  131. Dreyer 2007, p. 135.
  132. Twitchett 1998, p. 288.
  133. Twitchett 1998, p. 289.
  134. Twitchett 1998, p. 290.
  135. Xuan-de: Year 1, Month 12, Day 2
  136. Year 2, Month 11, Day 1
  137. Dreyer 2007, p. 142.
  138. Twitchett 1998, p. 299.
  139. Twitchett 1998, p. 294.
  140. Chase 2003, p. 68.
  141. Twitchett 1998, p. 296.
  142. Dreyer 2007, p. 144.
  143. Dreyer 2007, p. 151.
  144. Dreyer 2007, p. 145.
  145. Xuan-de: Year 6, Month 5, Day 3
  146. Dreyer 2007, p. 153.
  147. Mills 1970, p. 35.
  148. Dreyer 2007, p. 165.
  149. Dreyer 2007, p. 158.
  150. Dreyer 2007, p. 160.
  151. Twitchett 1998, p. 300.
  152. Dreyer 2007, p. 161.
  153. Dreyer 2007, p. 162-163.
  154. Dreyer 2007, p. 219.
  155. Twitchett 1998, p. 303.
  156. Twitchett 1998, p. 310.
  157. Dreyer 2007, p. 171.
  158. Liew 1996, p. 174-175.
  159. Liew 1996, p. 178.
  160. Liew 1996, p. 181-2.
  161. Twitchett 1998, p. 307.
  162. Liew 1996, p. 184.
  163. Liew 1996, p. 185.
  164. Twitchett 1998, p. 312.
  165. Twitchett 1998, p. 313.
  166. Liew 1996, p. 192.
  167. Twitchett 1998, p. 322.
  168. Twitchett 1998, p. 323.
  169. Twitchett 1998, p. 324.
  170. Twitchett 1998, p. 325.
  171. Twitchett 1998, p. 327.
  172. Twitchett 1998, p. 328.
  173. Twitchett 1998, p. 330.
  174. Twitchett 1998, p. 336.
  175. Twitchett 1998, p. 335.
  176. Twitchett 1998, p. 337.
  177. Twitchett 1998, p. 339.
  178. Twitchett 1998, p. 341.
  179. Twitchett 1998, p. 343.
  180. Twitchett 1998, p. 377.
  181. Dreyer 2007, p. 173.
  182. Twitchett 1998b, p. 269.
  183. Twitchett 1998, p. 380.
  184. Twitchett 1998, p. 387.
  185. Twitchett 1998, p. 399.
  186. Cheng-hua: Year 4, Month 4, Day 21
  187. Twitchett 1998, p. 394.
  188. Twitchett 1998, p. 401.
  189. Twitchett 1998, p. 388.
  190. Twitchett 1998, p. 383.
  191. Cheng-hua: Year 15, Month 4, Day 7
  192. Twitchett 1998, p. 365.
  193. Twitchett 1998, p. 351.
  194. Jin 2016, p. 31.
  195. Twitchett 1998, p. 357.
  196. Twitchett 1998, p. 374.
  197. Twitchett 1998, p. 395.
  198. Twitchett 1998, p. 491.
  199. Twitchett 1998, p. 381.
  200. Twitchett 1998, p. 382.
  201. Twitchett 1998, p. 371.
  202. Twitchett 1998, p. 403.
  203. Twitchett 1998, p. 404.
  204. Twitchett 1998, p. 405.
  205. Twitchett 1998, p. 407.
  206. Twitchett 1998, p. 409.
  207. Twitchett 1998, p. 410.
  208. Twitchett 1998, p. 467.
  209. Twitchett 1998, p. 413.
  210. Twitchett 1998, p. 433.
  211. Twitchett 1998, p. 416.
  212. Twitchett 1998, p. 415.
  213. Twitchett 1998, p. 417.
  214. Twitchett 1998, p. 420.
  215. Twitchett 1998, p. 421.
  216. Twitchett 1998, p. 428.
  217. Twitchett 1998, p. 429.
  218. Twitchett 1998, p. 430.
  219. Twitchett 1998, p. 432.
  220. Twitchett 1998, p. 434.
  221. Twitchett 1998, p. 443.
  222. Hao 2011, p. 12.
  223. Andrade 2016, p. 130.
  224. Twitchett 1998, p. 492.
  225. Andrade 2016, p. 141.
  226. Twitchett 1998, p. 451.
  227. Twitchett 1998, p. 453.
  228. Twitchett 1998, p. 452.
  229. Andrade 2008f.
  230. Twitchett 1998, p. 479.
  231. Twitchett 1998, p. 456.
  232. Twitchett 1998, p. 490.
  233. Twitchett 1998, p. 468.
  234. Twitchett 1998, p. 465.
  235. Twitchett 1998, p. 469.
  236. Twitchett 1998, p. 472.
  237. Twitchett 1998, p. 493.
  238. Twitchett 1998, p. 470.
  239. Twitchett 1998, p. 480.
  240. Twitchett 1998, p. 460.
  241. Twitchett 1998, p. 473.
  242. Needham 1986, p. 543.
  243. Twitchett 1998, p. 462.
  244. Twitchett 1998, p. 496.
  245. Twitchett 1998, p. 494.
  246. Twitchett 1998, p. 475.
  247. Andrade 2016, p. 171.
  248. Twitchett 1998, p. 495.
  249. Twitchett 1998, p. 476.
  250. Twitchett 1998, p. 477.
  251. Twitchett 1998, p. 481.
  252. Twitchett 1998, p. 487.
  253. Wills 2011, p. 38.
  254. Twitchett 1998, p. 498.
  255. Twitchett 1998, p. 478.
  256. Twitchett 1998, p. 502.
  257. Twitchett 1998, p. 482.
  258. Twitchett 1998, p. 503.
  259. Twitchett 1998, p. 504.
  260. Twitchett 1998, p. 489.
  261. Twitchett 1998, p. 507.
  262. Andrade 2016, p. 173.
  263. Twitchett 1998, p. 506.
  264. Needham 1986, p. 33.
  265. Needham 1986, p. 380.
  266. Knapp 1980, p. 9.
  267. Knapp 1980, p. 117.
  268. Twitchett 1998, p. 508.
  269. Twitchett 1998, p. 512.
  270. Twitchett 1998b, p. 270.
  271. Twitchett 1998, p. 514.
  272. Twitchett 1998, p. 505.
  273. Twitchett 1998, p. 559.
  274. Twitchett 1998, p. 560.
  275. Twitchett 1998, p. 532.
  276. Twitchett 1998, p. 525.
  277. Twitchett 1998, p. 515.
  278. Twitchett 1998, p. 575.
  279. Twitchett 1998, p. 522.
  280. Jin 2016, p. 30.
  281. Twitchett 1998, p. 562.
  282. Lewis 2015, p. 209.
  283. Knapp 1980, p. 10.
  284. Lewis 2015, p. 239.
  285. Swope 2009, p. 30.
  286. Swope 2009, p. 31-32.
  287. Swope 2009, p. 32-33.
  288. Swope 2009, p. 33.
  289. Twitchett 1998, p. 568.
  290. Twitchett 1998, p. 576.
  291. Twitchett 1998, p. 570.
  292. Twitchett 1998, p. 552.
  293. Twitchett 1998, p. 539.
  294. Andrade 2008d.
  295. Dardess 2012, p. 9.
  296. Twitchett 1998, p. 530.
  297. Twitchett 1998, p. 572.
  298. Twitchett 1998, p. 573.
  299. Twitchett 1998, p. 574.
  300. Twitchett 1998, p. 557.
  301. Chase 2003, p. 148.
  302. Sousa Pinto 2008, p. 22.
  303. Twitchett 1998, p. 531.
  304. Sousa Pinto 2008, pp. 33, 39.
  305. Wilkinson 2012, p. 934.
  306. Twitchett 1998, p. 561.
  307. Andrade 2008a.
  308. Twitchett 1998, p. 540.
  309. Twitchett 1998, p. 541.
  310. Needham 1986, p. 456.
  311. Jin 2016, p. 24.
  312. Twitchett 1998, p. 553.
  313. Twitchett 1998, p. 558.
  314. Twitchett 1998b, p. 271.
  315. Twitchett 1998, p. 577.
  316. Swope 2014, p. 14.
  317. Twitchett 1998, p. 579.
  318. Wakeman 1985, p. 63.
  319. Dmytryshyn 1985, p. 90.
  320. Twitchett 1998, p. 591.
  321. Twitchett 1998, p. 593.
  322. Twitchett 1998, p. 595.
  323. Andrade 2016, p. 201.
  324. Twitchett 1998, p. 600.
  325. Dardess 2012, p. 10.
  326. Twitchett 1998, p. 601.
  327. Twitchett 1998, p. 603.
  328. Twitchett 1998, p. 604.
  329. Twitchett 1998, p. 605.
  330. Knapp 1980, p. 12.
  331. Twitchett 1998, p. 610.
  332. Twitchett 1998, p. 602.
  333. Twitchett 1998, p. 611.
  334. Twitchett 1998, p. 612.
  335. Twitchett 1998, p. 615.
  336. Twitchett 1998, p. 614.
  337. Twitchett 1998, p. 616.
  338. Twitchett 1998, p. 618.
  339. Twitchett 1998, p. 617.
  340. Andrade 2016, p. 212.
  341. Andrade 2016, p. 204.
  342. Swope 2014, p. 102.
  343. Andrade 2016, p. 208.
  344. Twitchett 1998, p. 621.
  345. Twitchett 1998, p. 623.
  346. Twitchett 1998, p. 622.
  347. Needham 1986, p. 412.
  348. Twitchett 1998, p. 629.
  349. Twitchett 1998, p. 630.
  350. Twitchett 1998, p. 631.
  351. Twitchett 1998, p. 632.
  352. Twitchett 1998, p. 634.
  353. Twitchett 1998, p. 635.
  354. Twitchett 1998, p. 636.
  355. Needham 1986, p. 334.
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  357. Swope 2013.
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  359. Twitchett 1998, p. 638.
  360. Twitchett 1998, p. 637.
  361. Twitchett 1998, p. 639.
  362. Twitchett 1998, p. 644.
  363. Twitchett 1998, p. 656.
  364. Twitchett 1998, p. 660.
  365. Twitchett 1998, p. 658.
  366. Twitchett 1998, p. 662.
  367. Twitchett 1998, p. 665.
  368. Twitchett 1998, p. 673.
  369. Twitchett 1998, p. 675.
  370. Twitchett 1998, p. 676.
  371. Twitchett 1998, p. 678.
  372. Twitchett 1998, p. 702.
  373. Twitchett 1998, p. 679.
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  388. Twitchett 1998, p. 718.
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  391. Twitchett 1998, p. 708.
  392. Twitchett 1998, p. 720.
  393. Twitchett 1998, p. 721.
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