Near-close near-back rounded vowel

The near-close back rounded vowel, or near-high back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some vocal languages. The IPA symbol that represents this sound is ⟨ʊ⟩. It is informally called "horseshoe u". Prior to 1989, there was an alternative IPA symbol for this sound, ⟨ɷ⟩, called "closed omega"; use of this symbol is no longer sanctioned by the IPA.[2] In Americanist phonetic notation, the symbol ⟨ᴜ⟩ (a small capital U) is used. Sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨u⟩, which technically represents the close back rounded vowel.

Near-close back rounded vowel
ʊ
IPA Number321
Encoding
Entity (decimal)ʊ
Unicode (hex)U+028A
X-SAMPAU
Braille
Audio sample
source · help

Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines [ʊ] as a mid-centralized (lowered and centralized) close back rounded vowel (transcribed [u̽] or [ü̞]), and the current official IPA name of the vowel transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ is near-close near-back rounded vowel.[3] However, some languages have the close-mid near-back rounded vowel, a vowel that is somewhat lower than the canonical value of [ʊ], though it still fits the definition of a mid-centralized [u]. It occurs in some dialects of English (such as General American and Geordie)[4][5] as well as some other languages (such as Maastrichtian Limburgish).[6] It can be transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ̞⟩ (a lowered ⟨ʊ⟩) in narrow transcription. For the close-mid (near-)back rounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ (or ⟨u⟩), see close-mid back rounded vowel.

In some other languages (such as Bengali and Luxembourgish)[7][8] as well as some dialects of English (such as Scottish)[9][10] there is a fully back near-close rounded vowel (a sound between cardinal [u] and [o]), which can be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ʊ̠⟩, ⟨u̞⟩ or ⟨o̝⟩. There may be phonological reasons not to use the first symbol, as it may incorrectly imply a relation to the fully close [u]. It also implies too weak a rounding in some cases (specifically in the case of the vowels that are described as tense in Germanic languages), which would have to be specified as ⟨ʊ̹˗⟩ anyway.

A few languages also have the near-close back unrounded vowel (which does not have a separate IPA symbol) in their inventory.

Near-close back protruded vowel

The near-close back protruded vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ʊ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in the IPA, symbol for the near-close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨  ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨ʊ̫⟩ for the near-close back protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is ⟨ʊʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯ̽ʷ⟩ (a near-close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.

The close-mid near-back protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨ʊ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨ʊ̫˕⟩, whereas the fully back near-close protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨u̞ʷ⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨u̫˕⟩.

Features
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak protruded rounding, more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.

Occurrence

Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have compression. Vowels transcribed with ⟨o̝⟩ may have a stronger rounding than the prototypical value of ⟨ʊ⟩.

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
AfrikaansStandard[11]Botha[ˈbʊ̞ˑta]'Botha'Close-mid. Allophone of /ʊə/ in less stressed words, in stressed syllables of polysyllabic words and word-finally when unstressed. In the second case, it is in free variation with the diphthongal realization [ʊə̯ ~ ʊ̯ə ~ ʊə].[11] See Afrikaans phonology
ArabicHejaziقُلْت‎/qult[gʊlt]'I said'Allophone of /u/ in medial and initial positions. See Hejazi phonology
Assamese[12]পুঁত/pot[pʊ̞t]'to bury'Close-mid;[12] also described as open [ɒ].[13]
Bengali[7]তুমি/tumī[ˈt̪u̞ˌmiː]'you'Fully back;[7] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Bengali phonology
Burmese[14]မွတ်/mā[mʊʔ]'smooth'Allophone of /u/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized.[14]
ChineseMandarin[15]红 / hóng[xʊŋ˧˥]'red'Fully back; height varies between mid and close depending on the speaker. See Standard Chinese phonology
Shanghainese[16]瓜/kù[kʊ¹]'melon'The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[16]
DanishStandard[17]mave[ˈmɛːʊ]'stomach'Phonetic realization of the sequence /və/.[17] See Danish phonology
DutchStandard Northern[18]oren[ˈʊːrə(n)]'ears'Allophone of /oː/ before /r/. Can be a centering diphthong [ʊə] instead, especially before coda /r/. See Dutch phonology
Randstad[18]
Some speakers[19]hok[ɦʊk]'den'Contrasts with /ɔ/ in certain words, but many speakers have only one vowel /ɔ/.[19] See Dutch phonology
EnglishAustralian[20][21]hook[hʊk]'hook'Also described as close back [u].[22] See Australian English phonology
Irish[23]
Welsh[24][25]In Cardiff, it is advanced and lowered to [ɵ], often also with unrounding to [ɘ].[26]
Cockney[27][ʊʔk]Sometimes fronted to [ʊ̈].[27]
Conservative Received Pronunciation[21][hʊʔk]Often lowered and advanced to [ɵ], or unrounded to [ɘ]. See English phonology
Multicultural London[28]May be front [ʏ] instead.[28]
New Zealand[29]The height varies between near-close and close-mid; it is unrounded and advanced to [ɪ̈ ~ ɘ] in some lexical items.[30] See New Zealand English phonology
Norfolk[31]
Some Estuary speakers[32]Often advanced to [ʊ̈ ~ ʏ], or advanced and lowered to [ɵ ~ ʏ̞].[32]
General American[4][hʊ̞k]Close-mid.[4][5][33]
Geordie[5]
Southern Michigan[33]
Northern England[21][34][ʊk]
Scottish[9][10]go[ɡo̝ː]'go'Fully back.[9][10]
FrenchQuebec[35]foule[fʊl]'crowd'Allophone of /u/ in closed syllables.[35] See Quebec French phonology
GermanStandard[36][37]Stunde[ˈʃtʊndə]'hour'The quality has been variously described as near-close back [ʊ̠][36] and close-mid near-back [ʊ̞].[38] For some speakers, it may be as high as [u].[39] See Standard German phonology
Hindustani[40]गुलाब/گلاب‎/gulaab[gʊˈläːb]'rose'See Hindustani phonology
Hungarian[41]ujj[ʊjː]'finger'Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Hungarian phonology
IrishMunster[42]dubh[d̪ˠʊvˠ]'black'Allophone of /ʊ/ between broad consonants.[42] See Irish phonology
ItalianCentral-Southern accents[43]ombra[ˈo̝mbrä]'shade'Fully back; local realization of /o/.[43] See Italian phonology
Kurdish[44][45] Kurmanji (Northern) gul [gʊl] 'flower' See Kurdish phonology
Sorani (Central) گول/gul
Palewani (Southern)
LatinClassicalpuella[pʊɛlla]'girl'
LimburgishSome dialects[6][46]póp[pʊ̞p]'doll'Close-mid in the Maastrichtian dialect.[6] The example word is from that dialect.
Luxembourgish[8]Sprooch[ʃpʀo̝ːχ]'language'Fully back.[8] Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨oː⟩. See Luxembourgish phonology
PashayiLower Darai Nur dialect[47]صُر/sar[sʊ̞r]'sun'Close-mid.[47]
PortugueseBrazilian[48]pulo[ˈpulʊ]'leap'Reduction and neutralization of unstressed /u, o, ɔ/; can be voiceless. See Portuguese phonology
Russian[49]сухой/sukhoy/suhkoj[s̪ʊˈxʷo̞j]'dry'Unstressed allophone of /u/.[49] See Russian phonology
Saterland Frisian[50]Roop[ʀo̝ːp]'rope'Phonetic realization of /oː/ and /ʊ/. Near-close back [o̝ː] in the former case, close-mid near-back [ʊ̞] in the latter. Phonetically, the latter is nearly identical to /ɔː/ ([o̟ː]).[50]
ScotsGlenoe dialect[51]go[ɡo̝ː]'go'Fully back.[51]
Rathlin dialect[51]
Sinhalese[52]හුනඞක්/huṅgak [ɦʊ̜ŋɡak]'much'Only weakly rounded;[53] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩.
Slovak[54][55]ruka[ˈru̞kä]'arm'Typically fully back.[54] See Slovak phonology
Sotho[56]potso[pʼʊ̠t͡sʼɔ]'query'Fully back; contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[56] See Sotho phonology
SpanishEastern Andalusian[57]tus[t̪ʊ̠ː]'your' (pl.)Fully back. Corresponds to [u] in other dialects, but in these dialects they are distinct. See Spanish phonology
Murcian[57]
Turkish[58]buzlu[buz̪ˈl̠ʊ]'icy'Allophone of /u/ described variously as "word-final"[58] and "occurring in final open syllable of a phrase".[59] See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian[60]Мусій/musiy/musij[mʊˈsij]'Musiy' (name)See Ukrainian phonology
Welsh gẃraidd [ɡʊ.raið] 'manly' See Welsh phonology
Yoruba[61]lati sun[lati sũ̟] 'to sleep' Near-back or back; typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ũ⟩. It is nasalized, and may be close [ũ̟ ~ ũ] instead.[61]

Near-close back compressed vowel
Near-close back compressed vowel
ʊ͍
ɯ̽ᵝ

Some languages, such as Norwegian, are found with a near-close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.

There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ̽͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ̽] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯ̽ᵝ⟩ ([ɯ̽] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨  ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨ʊ͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically 'spread' means unrounded.

Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast this with the more typical protruded (endolabial) near-close back vowel, although the height of both of these vowels varies from close to close-mid.[16]

The fully back variant of the near-close compressed vowel can be transcribed ⟨ɯ̞͡β̞⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ᵝ⟩ or ⟨u͍˕⟩.

Features
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed. The prototypical [ʊ] has a weak rounding (though it is protruded, rather than compressed), more like [ɔ] than the neighboring cardinal vowels.

Occurrence
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ChineseShanghainese[16]都[tɯ̽ᵝ¹]'capital'The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[16]
Norwegian[62][63]ond[ɯ̞ᵝnː]'evil'Backness varies among dialects; it is a back vowel [ɯ̞ᵝ] in Urban East Norwegian, whereas in Stavangersk it is near-back [ɯ̽ᵝ].[62] The UEN vowel has also been described as close back [ɯᵝ].[64] See Norwegian phonology
SwedishCentral Standard[65][66]ort[ɯ̽ᵝʈː]'locality'The quality has been variously described as near-close near-back [ɯ̽ᵝ],[65] near-close back [ɯ̞ᵝ][66] and close back [ɯᵝ].[67] See Swedish phonology

Notes
  1. While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
  2. International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 169.
  3. International Phonetic Association (1999), pp. 13, 170, 180.
  4. Wells (1982), p. 486.
  5. Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
  6. Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159.
  7. Khan (2010), p. 222.
  8. Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
  9. Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
  10. Lindsey (2012b).
  11. Lass (1987), p. 119.
  12. Mahanta (2012), p. 220.
  13. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 293–294.
  14. Watkins (2001), p. 293.
  15. Lee & Zee (2003), p. 111.
  16. Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
  17. Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
  18. Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 134, 200–201.
  19. van Oostendorp (2013), section 29.
  20. Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
  21. Lindsey (2012a).
  22. Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
  23. Wells (1982), pp. 421–422.
  24. Connolly (1990), p. 125.
  25. Tench (1990), p. 135.
  26. Collins & Mees (1990), pp. 92–93.
  27. Mott (2011), p. 75.
  28. Gimson (2014), p. 91.
  29. Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
  30. Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98, 100–101.
  31. Lodge (2009), p. 168.
  32. Altendorf & Watt (2004), p. 188.
  33. Hillenbrand (2003), p. 122.
  34. Lodge (2009), p. 163.
  35. Walker (1984), pp. 51–60.
  36. Kohler (1999), p. 87.
  37. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 64.
  38. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
  39. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
  40. Ohala (1999), p. 102.
  41. Szende (1994), p. 92.
  42. Ó Sé (2000), p. ?.
  43. Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 137.
  44. Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
  45. Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8-16.
  46. Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
  47. Lamuwal & Baker (2013), p. 245.
  48. Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
  49. Jones & Ward (1969), p. 69.
  50. Peters (2017), p. ?.
  51. Gregg (1953).
  52. Perera & Jones (1919), pp. 5, 10.
  53. Perera & Jones (1919), p. 10.
  54. Pavlík (2004), pp. 93, 95.
  55. Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 375.
  56. Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
  57. Zamora Vicente (1967), p. ?.
  58. Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 10.
  59. Zimmer & Organ (1999), p. 155.
  60. Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
  61. Bamgboṣe (1969), p. 166.
  62. Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 18.
  63. While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
  64. Kvifte & Gude-Husken (2005), p. 2.
  65. Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
  66. Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
  67. Dahlstedt (1967), p. 16.

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