Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, headed by the Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs. The Prime Minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many institutions and businesses have a voice and a role.
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The United Kingdom was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the so-called "Pax Britannica"—a period of totally unrivaled supremacy and unprecedented international peace during the mid-to-late 1800s. The country continued to be widely considered a superpower until the Suez crisis of 1956, and this embarrassing incident coupled with the loss of the empire left the UK's dominant role in global affairs to be gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a founding member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, the latter being a legacy of the British Empire. The UK had been a member state of the European Union (and a member of its predecessors) since 1973. However, due to the outcome of a 2016 membership referendum, proceedings to withdraw from the EU began in 2017 and concluded when the UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, and the transition period on 31 December 2020 with an EU trade agreement. Since the vote and the conclusion of trade talks with the EU, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners.
History
Following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain (which united England and Scotland) in 1707, British foreign relations largely continued those of the Kingdom of England. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This policy remained a major justification for Britain's wars against Napoleon, and for British involvement in the First and Second World Wars.
The chief enemy of London, from the Hundred Years' War until the defeat of Napoleon (1337-1815), was France, a much larger country with a more powerful army. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception, the American War of Independence (1775–1783), saw Britain, without any major allies, defeated by the North American colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and Spain. A favoured British diplomatic strategy involved subsidising the armies of continental allies (such as Prussia), thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat, eventually with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation and maintaining of the British Empire, which was achieved through the support of a navy larger than the next two largest navies combined for the majority of the 19th and early-20th centuries, prior to the entry of the United States into the Second World War in 1941.
1814–1914
First World War
1920s
After 1918 Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority.[1] The main themes of British foreign policy included a role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge on Germany.[2] He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany further, as in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.[3][4] Britain became an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.[5][6]
Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament agreements had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.[7] Britain was much less successful in negotiating with United States regarding the large loans which Britain was obliged to repay. Britain supported the American solution through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan whereby Germany paid its reparations using money borrowed from New York banks.[8] The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain revived Imperial Preference, which meant low tariffs within the British Empire and higher barriers to trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.
In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. Labour stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of countries. Nevertheless, party leader Ramsay MacDonald devoted much of his attention to European policies.[9]
1930s
Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the First World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators (notably of Mussolini and of Hitler) in order to avoid their threats of war.[10]
The challenge came from those dictators, first from Benito Mussolini, Duce of Italy, then from Adolf Hitler, Führer of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it failed to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy involved "appeasing" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of September 1938.[11] Instead of satiation, Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland (31 March 1939). Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe (23 August 1939); when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.[12]
Second World War
Postwar
Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and dealing with widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO in 1949.[13]
The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies.[14][15] The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997.[16] Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.[17]
Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which became the European Union in 1993.[18] However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the EU financial crisis of 2011.[19] In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU.[20][21]
21st century
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Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade.[22] The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".[23]
Lunn et al. (2008) argue:[24]
- Three key motifs of Tony Blair’s 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain’s role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.
The GREAT campaign of 2012 was one of the most ambitious national promotion efforts ever undertaken by any major nation. It was scheduled take maximum advantage of the worldwide attention to the Summer Olympics in London. The goals were to make British more culture visible in order to stimulate trade, investment and tourism. The government partnered with key leaders in culture, business, diplomacy and education. The campaign unified many themes and targets, including business meetings; scholarly conventions; recreational vehicle dealers; parks and campgrounds; convention and visitors bureaus; hotels; bed and breakfast inns; casinos; and hotels.[25][26]
In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:[27]
- For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.
The UK began establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Oman in 2014–15.[28][29][30][31] The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government.[32][33] Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez.[34] By some measures, Britain remains the second most powerful country in the world by virtue of its soft power and "logistical capability to deploy, support and sustain [military] forces overseas in large numbers."[35] Although commentators have questioned the need for global power projection,[36] the concept of “Global Britain” put forward by the Conservative government in 2019 signalled more military activity in the Middle East and Pacific, outside of NATO's traditional sphere of influence.[37][38]
At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, with a subsequent trade agreement with the EU in effect from 1 January 2021, setting out the terms of the UK-EU economic relationship and what abilities the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office can use in foreign relations related to trade.
Major international disputes since 1945
- 1946–1949 – involved in Greek Civil War
- 1945–1948 – administration of the Mandate for Palestine, ending with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. British forces often faced conflict with Arab nationalists and Jewish Zionist militia, including those who in 1946 blew up the King David Hotel, which was British administrative and military HQ, killing 91 people.
- 1947–1991 – Cold War with Soviet Union
- 1948–1949 – Berlin Blockade – dispute with USSR over access to West Berlin and general Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe[39]
- 1948–1960 – Malayan Emergency – armed conflict against the politically isolated Communist forces of the Malayan National Liberation Army
- 1950–1953 – Korean War – war with North Korea
- 1951–1954 – Abadan Crisis – dispute with Iran over expropriated oil assets
- 1956–1957 – Suez Crisis – armed conflict with Egypt over its seizure of the Suez Canal Zone, and dispute with most of international community
- 1958 – First Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
- 1962–1966 – Konfrontasi – war with Indonesia
British street patrol in Aden in 1967 - 1972–1973 – Second Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
- 1975–1976 – Third Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland[40]
- 1982 – Falklands War – war with Argentina over the Falkland Islands and other British South Atlantic territory.
- 1983 – Condemnation of the United States over its invasion of Grenada.[41]
- 1984 – dispute with Libya after a policewoman is shot dead in London by a gunman from within the Libyan embassy and considerable Libyan support for the IRA in Northern Ireland.
- 1988 – further dispute with Libya over the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie[42]
- 1991 – Gulf War with Iraq[43]
- 1995 – under UN mandate, military involvement in Yugoslavia (specifically Bosnia)
- 1997 – Hong Kong handover to Chinese rule. Britain secures guarantees for a "special status" that would continue capitalism and protect existing British property.[44]
- 1999 – involvement in NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia over Kosovo
- 2000 – British action in saving the UN peacekeeping force from collapse and defeating the anti-government rebellion during the Sierra Leone Civil War
- 2001 – UN-sponsored war against, and subsequent occupation of, Afghanistan
A Lynx Helicopter of the British Army Air Corps ready to touch down on a desert road south of Basra Airport, November 2003 - 2003 – Collaborate with US and others in war and occupation of, Iraq Over 46,000 British troops subsequently occupy Basra and Southern Iraq
- 2007 – (ongoing) diplomatic dispute with Russia over the death of Alexander Litvinenko[45] Additional matters have strained British-Russian relations; continued espionage, Russian human rights violations and support of regimes hostile to the west (Syria, Iran)
- 2009 – (ongoing) Dispute with Iran over its alleged nuclear weapons programme, including sanctions and Iranian condemnation of the British government culminating in a 2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran.
- 2011 – under UN mandate, UK Armed Forces participated in enforcing the Libyan No-Fly Zone as part of Operation Ellamy[46]
- 2013 – support to French forces in the Malian civil war, including training and equipment to African peacekeeping and Malian government forces.
- 2015 – support to US-led coalition against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant.
- 2016 – P5+1 and EU implement a deal with Iran intended to prevent the country gaining access to nuclear weapons.[47]
- 2018 – Sanctions on Russia following the poisoning of Sergei Skripal using a nerve agent in Salisbury, England included the expulsions of 23 diplomats, the largest ever since the Cold War, an act that was retaliated by Russia. A further war of words entailed and relations are deteriorating.
- 2019 – The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius. In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague ruled that the United Kingdom must transfer the islands to Mauritius as they were not legally separated from the latter in 1965.[48] On 22 May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly debated and adopted a resolution that affirmed that the Chagos archipelago “forms an integral part of the territory of Mauritius.”[49] The UK does not recognise Mauritius' sovereignty claim over the Chagos Islands.[50] Mauritian Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth described the British and American governments as "hypocrites" and "champions of double talk" over their response to the dispute.[51]
- 2019 – The Persian Gulf crisis escalated in July 2019, when Iranian oil tanker was seized by Britain in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf.[52]
Sovereignty disputes
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- Spain claims the British overseas territory of Gibraltar.[53]
- The entire Chagos Archipelago in the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius and the Maldives. The claim includes the island of Diego Garcia used as a joint UK/US military base since the 1970s when the inhabitants were forcibly removed, Blenheim Reef, Speakers Bank and all the other features.[54][55]
- There are conflicting claims over the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, controlled by the United Kingdom but claimed by Argentina. The dispute escalated into the Falklands War in 1982 over the islands' sovereignty, in which Argentina was defeated.
- There is a territorial claim in Antarctica, the British Antarctic Territory, which overlaps with areas claimed by Chile and Argentina.[56]
- There is a dispute over territorial waters and continental shelf rights around Rockall.[57]
Commonwealth of Nations
The UK has varied relationships with the countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British Empire. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is Head of the Commonwealth and is Queen of 16 of its 53 member states. Those that retain the Queen as head of state are called Commonwealth realms. Over time several countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President[58] and so too was Pakistan, but it has since returned. Countries which become republics are still eligible for membership of the Commonwealth so long as they are deemed democratic. Commonwealth nations such as Malaysia enjoyed no export duties in trade with the UK before the UK concentrated its economic relationship with EU member states.
The UK was once a dominant colonial power in many countries on the continent of Africa and its multinationals remain large investors in sub-Saharan Africa. Nowadays the UK, as a leading member of the Commonwealth of Nations, seeks to influence Africa through its foreign policies. Current UK disputes are with Zimbabwe over human rights violations. Tony Blair set up the Africa Commission and urged rich countries to cease demanding developing countries repay their large debts. Relationships with developed (often former dominion) nations are strong with numerous cultural, social and political links, mass inter-migration trade links as well as calls for Commonwealth free trade.
From 2016 to 2018, the Windrush scandal occurred, where the UK deported a number British Citizens with Commonwealth heritage back to their Commonwealth country on claims they were "illegal immigrants".
Africa
Americas
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
 Antigua and Barbuda | 1981 | See Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda |
 Argentina | 1823-12-15 | See Argentina–United Kingdom relations
|
 Bahamas | 1973 | See Foreign relations of the Bahamas |
 Barbados | 1966 | See Barbados–United Kingdom relations
The two countries are related through common history beginning in the 1620s, the Commonwealth of Nations and their sharing of the same Head of State, Queen Elizabeth II as their Monarch. As one of the first English colonies, the initial permanent European settlement took place in the early seventeenth century by English settlers. Barbados thereafter remained as a territory until it negotiated independence in 1966. In recent years, increasing numbers of British nationals have purchased secondary homes in Barbados,[64] and the islands ranked as the Caribbean regions' fourth largest export market of the United Kingdom.[65]
|
 Belize | 1981 | See Belize–United Kingdom relations
|
 Bolivia | 1837 | See Foreign relations of Bolivia
|
 Brazil | 1826 | See Brazil–United Kingdom relations
|
.svg.png.webp){kind=small} Canada | 1880 | See Canada–United Kingdom relations
Both nations enjoy a cooperative and intimate contact; the two countries are related through history, the Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and monarch.[66] Both countries fought together in both World Wars, the Korean War, and more recently cooperate in the coalition in the War in Afghanistan. Both are founding members of NATO, and also belong to the G7 (and the G8). Winston Churchill said Canada was the "linchpin of the English-speaking world", as it connects two other anglophone countries: the US and the UK. These three countries were the first to share the knowledge of the atom bomb with each other, as all three worked on the Manhattan Project together. Despite this shared history, the UK and Canada have grown apart economically. The UK was Canada's largest trade partner in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now well down the list. The two nations now find themselves in separate trade blocs, the EU for the UK and NAFTA for Canada. However relations are still strong, with large migration between the two countries, as well as Canada having the highest favourable public opinion of the UK in the world. |
 Chile | 1844 | See Chile–United Kingdom relations
Chile provided some assistance to Britain during the Falklands War since it was itself at risk of possible war with Argentina regarding the boundary between the two nations in the Beagle Channel.[67]
|
 Colombia | 1825-04-18 | See Colombia–United Kingdom relations
|
 Costa Rica | 1849 | See Foreign relations of Costa Rica |
 Cuba | 1902 | See Cuba–United Kingdom relations |
 Dominica | 1978 | See Foreign relations of Dominica |
 Dominican Republic | 1871 | See Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic |
 Ecuador |
1935 | See Foreign relations of Ecuador
In 2012, relations came under strain when Julian Assange, founder of the WikiLeaks website, entered the Ecuadorian embassy in London and sought asylum; Assange had recently lost a legal case against his extradition to Sweden on charges of sexual assault and rape, but when within the embassy he was on diplomatic territory and beyond the reach of the British police.[70] The United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office delivered a note to the Ecuadorian government in Quito reminding them of the provisions of the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987 which allow the British government to withdraw recognition of diplomatic protection from embassies; the move was interpreted as a hostile act by Ecuador, with Foreign Minister Ricardo Patiño stating that this "explicit threat" would be met with "appropriate responses in accordance with international law".[71] Assange was granted diplomatic asylum on 16 August 2012, with Foreign Minister Patiño stating that Assange's fears of political persecution were "legitimate".[72] |
 El Salvador | 1834 | See Foreign relations of El Salvador |
 Grenada | 1974 | See Grenada–United Kingdom relations |
 Guatemala | 1834 | See Foreign relations of Guatemala |
 Guyana | 1966 | See Foreign relations of Guyana |
 Haiti | 1859 | See Foreign relations of Haiti |
 Honduras | 1834 | See Foreign relations of Honduras |
 Jamaica | 1962 | See Foreign relations of Jamaica |
 Mexico | 27 June 1824 | See Mexico–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to recognize Mexico's Independence.[73] The relationship between the two nations began after the Pastry War when the United Kingdom aided Mexico against France. Also, relations improved when Mexico joined the British alongside the Allies to fight the Japanese forces in the Pacific War.
|
 Nicaragua | 1849 | See Foreign relations of Nicaragua |
 Panama | 1904 | See Foreign relations of Panama
|
 Paraguay | 1853-03-04 | See Paraguay–United Kingdom relations
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 4 March 1853, with the signing of a treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation. A dominant view in Paraguay and significant in all the Southern Cone is that the interests of the British Empire played a considerable role during the Paraguayan War.[78]
|
 Peru | 1827 | See Foreign relations of Peru |
 Saint Kitts and Nevis | 1983 | See Foreign relations of Saint Kitts and Nevis |
 Saint Lucia | 1979 | See Foreign relations of Saint Lucia |
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 1979 | See Foreign relations of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |
 Suriname | 1975 | See Foreign relations of Suriname |
 Trinidad and Tobago | 1962 | See Trinidad and Tobago–United Kingdom relations |
 United States | 1785-06-01 | See United Kingdom–United States relations
 United States President Barack Obama talks to British Prime Minister David Cameron on the South Lawn of the White House, 20 July 2010 The United Kingdom and the United States are close military allies. The two countries share cultural similarities, as well as military research and intelligence facilities. The UK has purchased military technology from the USA such as Trident ballistic missiles, and the US has purchased equipment from Britain (e.g. Harrier Jump Jet). The USA also maintains a large number of military personnel in the UK. In recent years, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the President of the United States have often been close friends, for example Tony Blair and Bill Clinton (and later Blair and George W. Bush), and the often like-minded Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. Present British policy is that The United Kingdom's relationship with the United States represents Britain's "most important bilateral relationship".[80] |
 Uruguay | 1825 | See United Kingdom–Uruguay relations
|
 Venezuela | 1842 | See Venezuela–United Kingdom relations; Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903 |
Asia
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
 Afghanistan | 1921 | See Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations |
 Armenia | 1992-01-02[82] | See Armenia–United Kingdom relations |
 Azerbaijan | 1992 | See Azerbaijan–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). |
 Bahrain | 1971 | See Bahrain–United Kingdom relations
|
 Bangladesh | 1972 | See Foreign relations of Bangladesh |
 Bhutan | No Relations | See Foreign relations of Bhutan |
 Brunei | 1984 | See Brunei–United Kingdom relations
In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British rule less than 100 years later in 1984. The UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei's oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006–07. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
 Cambodia | 1953 | See Foreign relations of Cambodia |
 China | 1954 | See China–United Kingdom relations, Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations,
Although on opposing sides of the Cold War, both countries were allies during World War II, and are members of the UN and permanent members of the Security Council. But because of the Cold War, First and Second Opium War, and the status of Hong Kong, and other issues, China-UK relations at some points in history have been complicated, but better at other times. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including United Kingdom, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.[87] |
 East Timor | 2002 | See Foreign relations of East Timor |
 Georgia | 1992 | See Georgia–United Kingdom relations |
 India | 1947 | See India–United Kingdom relations
British India was a former colony of the British Empire. India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh.[90] The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and three deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.[91] Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The English language, the railways, the legal and parliamentary systems and cricket have been warmly adopted. Indian cuisines are popular in the UK.[92] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.[92] Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. The UK is the second largest investor in India after the US. India is also the fourth[93] largest investor in Britain after the US.[94][95][96] |
 Indonesia | 1949 | See Indonesia–United Kingdom relations |
 Iran | 1807 | See Iran–United Kingdom relations
Iran, which was known as Persia before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey de Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.[99] |
 Iraq | 1920 | See Iraq–United Kingdom relations
Sanctions against Iraq from 1990 to 2003 prevented any form of economic relations with the United Kingdom and any other country for thirteen years. Ties between London and Baghdad are slowly progressing. |
 Israel | 1948 | See Israel–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consul in Eilat.[100] Israel has an embassy and a consulate in London. The UK's closest partner in the Middle East is Israel, and Israel's closest partner in Europe is the UK.[101][102] |
 Japan | 1854-10-14 | See Japan–United Kingdom relations
Contact began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, Miura Anjin) on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture. During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations. but with the impact of Industrial Revolution, British thread company launched its business in 1907 and thrived. The treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day. |
 Jordan | 1952 | See Foreign relations of Jordan |
 Kazakhstan | 1992-01-19 | See Kazakhstan–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992 and Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996.[103] Kazakhstan's relations with the West have greatly improved in the last few years as the Government has closely cooperated in the United States-led War on Terror. See also: Counter-terrorism in Kazakhstan Britain is the third-largest foreign investor in Kazakhstan with British companies making up 14% of foreign direct investment. Over 100 British companies do business in Kazakhstan.[104] |
 Kuwait | 1961 | See Foreign relations of Kuwait |
 Kyrgyzstan | 1992 | See Kyrgyzstan–United Kingdom relations |
 Laos | 1952 | See Foreign relations of Laos |
 Lebanon | 1944 | See Foreign relations of Lebanon |
 Malaysia | 1957 | See Malaysia–United Kingdom relations
 The Yang di-Pertuan Agong in a carriage with Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the state visit to London, 1974. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Both the UK and Malaysia are part of the Five Powers Defence Arrangements. Malaysia is a strong partner of Britain in the Far East. Britain has made numerous military sacrifices in guaranteeing a stable independent Malaysia, for example the Malaysian Emergency and the protection of the country during high tensions with Indonesia-Konfrontasi. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Abdul Halim of Kedah paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1974.[105] The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Azlan Shah of Perak paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in November 1993.[105] HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Malaysia in October 1989, and in September 1998.[106] |
 Maldives | 1965 | See Foreign relations of the Maldives |
 Mongolia | 1963-01-23 | See Foreign relations of Mongolia |
 Myanmar | 1948 | See Foreign relations of Myanmar |
 Nepal | 1816-09-01 | See Nepal–United Kingdom relations
Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal as a result of historical ties, development assistance and long-term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal. |
 North Korea | 2000 | See North Korea–United Kingdom relations
|
 Oman | 1971 | See Oman–United Kingdom relations
The relations between the United Kingdom and Oman are strong and strategic.[107] In April 2010 the government of Oman stated that it wanted to buy Eurofighter Typhoons from the UK.[107] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Mina al Fahal[108] and Oman has an embassy in London.[109] |
 Pakistan | 1947 | See Pakistan-United Kingdom relations
|
 Palestine | See Palestine–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Jerusalem which handles British relations with the Palestinian Authority.[110] The Foreign and Commonwealth Office states the "Consular district covers Jerusalem (West and East), the West Bank and Gaza. As well as work on the Middle East Peace Process and other political issues, the consulate also promotes trade between the UK and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and manages an extensive programme of aid and development work. The latter is undertaken primarily by the DFID office in Jerusalem.".[110] The Palestinian Authority is represented in London by Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian General Delegate to the United Kingdom.[110] | |
 Philippines | 1946-07-04 | See Philippines–United Kingdom relations
|
 Qatar | 1971 | See Qatar-United Kingdom relations
|
 Saudi Arabia | 1927 | See Saudi Arabia–United Kingdom relations
The UK has an embassy in Riyadh, consulate in Jeddah and trade office in Al Khobar.[111] Saudi Arabia has an embassy and consulate in London.[112] |
 Singapore | 1965 | See Singapore–United Kingdom relations
Singapore and the United Kingdom share a friendly relationship since Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1959. Singapore retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal up till 1989 (fully abolished in 1994) due to political reasons. |
 South Korea | 1883-11-26[113] | See South Korea–United Kingdom relations
|
 Sri Lanka | 1948 | See Sri Lanka–United Kingdom relations
|
 Syria | See Foreign relations of Syria
In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror. Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people. | |
 Taiwan | No Relations | See Taiwan–United Kingdom relations
|
 Tajikistan | 1992 | See Foreign relations of Tajikistan |
 Thailand | 1855-04-18 | See Thailand–United Kingdom relations
|
 Turkey | 1793 | See Turkey–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8% of its total goods to the United Kingdom.[124] Around 1,000,000 Britons take holidays in Turkey every year, while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure.[125] The United Kingdom does not recognise the TRNC. The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.[126] Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Turkmenistan | 1992 | See Foreign relations of Turkmenistan |
 United Arab Emirates | 1971 | See United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations
|
 Uzbekistan | 1992 | See United Kingdom–Uzbekistan relations |
 Vietnam | 1973 | See Foreign relations of Vietnam |
 Yemen | 1970 | See Foreign relations of Yemen
The United Kingdom has one consulate and embassy based in the centre of Sana'a. |
Europe
The UK maintained good relations with Western Europe since 1945, and Eastern Europe since end of the Cold War in 1989. After years of dispute with France it joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which eventually evolved into the European Union through the Maastricht Treaty twenty years later.[129] Unlike the majority of European countries, the UK does not use the Euro as its currency and is not a member of the Eurozone.[130] During the years of its membership of the European Union, the United Kingdom had often been referred to as a "peculiar" member, due to its occasional dispute in policies with the organisation. The United Kingdom regularly opted out of EU legislation and policies. Through differences in geography, culture and history, national opinion polls have found that of the 28 nationalities in the European Union, British people have historically felt the least European.[131][132] On 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union and formally left on 31 January 2020.
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
 Albania | 1920-12 | See Albania–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Andorra | 1994-03-09[135] | See Foreign relations of Andorra
|
 Belarus | 1992 | See Foreign relations of Belarus |
 Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1995 | See Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina |
 Iceland | 1944 | See Iceland–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Kosovo | 2008 | See Kosovo–United Kingdom relations
When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to officially announce recognition of sovereign Kosovo on 18 February 2008.[146][147] The United Kingdom has had an embassy in Pristina since 5 March 2008.[148] Kosovo has an embassy in London since 1 October 2008. |
 Liechtenstein | See Foreign relations of Liechtenstein
| |
 Moldova | 1992-01-17[149] | See Foreign relations of Moldova
The number of British and Moldovan citizens in Moldova and the United Kingdom respectively is insignificant. When visiting Moldova no visa obligation exists for British citizens for stays in Moldova less than 90 days, otherwise a visa is required. For Moldovan citizens a visa is required for any border crossing, except for transfer passengers. |
 Monaco |
| |
 Montenegro | 2006-06-13 | See Montenegro–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 North Macedonia | See Foreign relations of North Macedonia
Both countries are members of NATO. | |
 Norway | 1905 | See Norway–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Russia | 1553 | See Russia–United Kingdom relations
Spanning nearly five centuries, the relationship has often switched from a state of alliance to rivalry. Both countries were allies during World War I and II. During the Cold War, both countries participated in intense espionage activity against each other. In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained again, and since 2014 have grown more unfriendly due to the Ukrainian crisis (2013–) and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the Western world. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.[160] |
 San Marino | 1899;1961 | See San Marino–United Kingdom relations
|
 Serbia | 1837 | See Serbia–United Kingdom relations
|
 Switzerland | 1900 | See Switzerland–United Kingdom relations |
 Ukraine | 1991 | See Ukraine–United Kingdom relations
|
 Vatican City | 1982 | See Holy See–United Kingdom relations
With the English Reformation, diplomatic links between London and the Holy See, which had been established in 1479, were interrupted in 1536 and again, after a brief restoration in 1553, in 1558. Formal diplomatic ties between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were restored in 1914 and raised to ambassadorial level in 1982.[170][171] |
European Union
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
 Austria | 1799 | See Austria-United Kingdom relations
Relations between the Austrian Empire and England were established in the Middle Ages. The United Kingdom and Austria continue these relations. |
.svg.png.webp){kind=small} Belgium | 1830 | See Belgium–United Kingdom relations
The two countries have trading links going back to the 10th century, especially wool trade from England to the County of Flanders. Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Bulgaria | 1879-07 | See Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Croatia | 1992 | See Croatia-United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Cyprus | 1960 | See Cyprus–United Kingdom relations
The UK maintains two sovereign area military bases on the island of Cyprus. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.[126] |
 Czechia | 1993 | See Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations
HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to Czechia in March 1996.[187] Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Denmark | 1654-10-01 | See Denmark–United Kingdom relations
HM Queen Margrethe II of Denmark paid state visits to the United Kingdom in April/May 1974, and in February 2000.[188] HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Denmark in May 1957, and in May 1979.[189] Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Estonia | 1991 | See Foreign relations of Estonia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Finland | 1919-05-06[193] | See Foreign relations of Finland
|
 France | 1505 | See France–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Germany | 1680 | See Germany–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Greece | 1832 | See Greece–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Hungary | 1920 | [206]
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Ireland | 1921 | See Ireland–United Kingdom relations
Despite a long history of conflict from English Tudor plantation in Ireland to the Irish War of independence, the UK presently works closely with the government of the Republic of Ireland in areas concerning the peace process in Northern Ireland as well as on many security issues. In 1949 the Irish Houses of Parliament passed the Republic of Ireland Act, making the Republic of Ireland officially fully independent; the country withdrew from the Commonwealth. Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. Until 1998, the Republic of Ireland claimed Northern Ireland, but this was rescinded under the Belfast Agreement through an amendment of the Irish Constitution, which now states an aspiration to peaceful unity. There is an ongoing dispute that also involves Denmark and Iceland, over the status of the ocean floor surrounding Rockall. However, this is for the most part a trivial issue that rarely makes it onto British-Irish meeting agendas.[57] Ireland has confidential agreements with both the United Kingdom and NATO to defend sovereign Irish airspace from intrusions or attacks.
Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above. |
 Italy | 1861 | See Italy–United Kingdom relations
Between 4 and 5 million British tourists visit Italy every year, while 1 million Italian tourists visit the UK.[214] There are about 19,000 British nationals living in Italy, and 150,000 Italians living in the UK.[215]
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Latvia | 1991 | See Foreign relations of Latvia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Lithuania | 1991-09-04[218] | See Lithuania–United Kingdom relations
There are around 100,000 Lithuanians living in the United Kingdom. Both countries are members of NATO. In 2006, HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip paid an official state visit to Lithuania.[222][223]
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Luxembourg | See Foreign relations of Luxembourg
Both countries are members of NATO. | |
 Malta | 1964 | See Malta–United Kingdom relations
In the 1950s and 1960s, serious consideration was given in both countries to the idea of a political union between the United Kingdom and Malta. However, this plan for "Integration with Britain" foundered, and Malta gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964. British Monarch Queen Elizabeth II remained Queen of Malta until the country became a Republic in 1974. There is a small Maltese community in the United Kingdom. In addition, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar has been influenced by significant 18th and 19th Century immigration from Malta (see "History of the Maltese in Gibraltar").
Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above. |
 Netherlands | 1603 | See Netherlands–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Poland | 1919 | See Poland–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Portugal | 1373 | See Portugal–United Kingdom relations
The relationship dates back to the Middle Ages in 1373 with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Romania | 1880-02-20 | See Romania–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Slovakia | 1993 | See Slovakia–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Slovenia | 1992 | See Foreign relations of Slovenia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Spain | 1509 | See Spain–United Kingdom relations
During the Second World War Spain remained neutral, but was perceived to be closely aligned with Nazi Germany. Following the end of the war, frosty relations continued between the two states until the end of the Franco era and the democratisation of Spain. Both countries are members of NATO. |
 Sweden | 1653 | See Sweden-United Kingdom relations
|
Oceania
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
.svg.png.webp){kind=small} Australia | 1936 | See Australia–United Kingdom relations
Australia–United Kingdom relations are close, marked by shared history, culture, institutions and language, extensive people-to-people links, aligned security interests, and vibrant trade and investment cooperation. The long-standing relationship formally began in 1901 when the six British Crown colonies in Australia federated, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire. Australia fought alongside Britain in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World War II. Andrew Fisher, Australian prime minister from 1914 to 1916, declared that Australia would defend the United Kingdom "to the last man and the last shilling." Australia's sovereignty, de facto recognised at the end of the First World War, was formalised with the Statute of Westminster of 1931. Until 1949, the United Kingdom and Australia nevertheless shared a common nationality code. The final constitutional ties between United Kingdom and Australia ended in 1986 with the passing of the Australia Act 1986. Currently, more than 4% of the Australian population was born in the UK, giving strong mutual relations. Furthermore, investment and trade between the two countries are still important. |
 Fiji | 1970 | See Foreign relations of Fiji |
 Kiribati | 1979 | See Foreign relations of Kiribati |
 Marshall Islands | 1991 | See Foreign relations of Marshall Islands |
 Micronesia | 1992-08-31 | See Foreign relations of Micronesia |
 Nauru | 1968 | See Nauru–United Kingdom relations
Nauru was part of the British Western Pacific Territories from September 1914 and June 1921.[253] The British Government had ceased to exercise any direct role in the governance of Nauru by 1968, when the island achieved its independence. The Nauruan government maintains an Hon. Consul, Martin W I Weston. The British High Commission in Suva is responsible for the United Kingdom's bilateral relations with Nauru.[254] |
 New Zealand | 1939 | See New Zealand–United Kingdom relations
Up to about the 1960s, New Zealand also had extremely close economic relations with the United Kingdom, especially considering the distance at which trade took place. As an example, in 1955, Britain took 65.3 percent of New Zealand's exports, and only during the following decades did this dominant position begin to decline as the United Kingdom oriented itself more towards the European Union, with the share of exports going to Britain having fallen to only 6.2 percent in 2000.[255] Historically, some industries, such as dairying, a major economic factor in the former colony, had even more dominant trade links, with 80-100% of all cheese and butter exports going to Britain from around 1890 to 1940.[256] This strong bond also supported the mutual feelings for each other in other areas. |
 Palau | See Foreign relations of Palau | |
 Papua New Guinea | 1975 | See Papua New Guinea–United Kingdom relations
Papua New Guinea and the United Kingdom share Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. They have had relations since 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia. |
 Samoa | 1962 | See Foreign relations of Samoa |
 Solomon Islands | 1978 | See Foreign relations of the Solomon Islands |
 Tonga | 1879; 1970 | The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Tonga established formal mutual diplomatic recognition in 1879.[257] Tonga was then a British protectorate from 1900 to 1970, whereupon diplomatic relations resumed at the level of sovereign states. See Foreign relations of Tonga |
 Tuvalu | 1978 | See Foreign relations of Tuvalu |
 Vanuatu | 1980 | See Foreign relations of Vanuatu |
Overseas Territories
International Organizations
The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:[258]
- ADB - Asian Development Bank (nonregional member)
- AfDB - African Development Bank (nonregional member)
- Arctic Council (observer)
- Australia Group
- BIS - Bank for International Settlements
- Commonwealth of Nations
- CBSS - Council of the Baltic Sea States (observer)
- CDB - Caribbean Development Bank
- Council of Europe
- CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research
- EAPC - Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council
- EBRD - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- EIB - European Investment Bank
- ESA - European Space Agency
- FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
- FATF - Financial Action Task Force
- G-20 - Group of Twenty
- G-5 - Group of Five
- G7 - Group of Seven
- G8 - Group of Eight
- G-10 - Group of Ten (economics)
- IADB - Inter-American Development Bank
- IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
- IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (also known as the World Bank)
- ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
- ICC - International Chamber of Commerce
- ICCt - International Criminal Court
- ICRM - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
- IDA - International Development Association
- IEA - International Energy Agency
- IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
- IFC - International Finance Corporation
- IFRCS - International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
- IHO - International Hydrographic Organization
- ILO - International Labour Organization
- IMF - International Monetary Fund
- IMO - International Maritime Organization
- IMSO - International Mobile Satellite Organization
- Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization
- IOC - International Olympic Committee
- IOM - International Organization for Migration
- IPU - Inter-Parliamentary Union
- ISO - International Organization for Standardization
- ITSO - International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
- ITU - International Telecommunication Union
- ITUC - International Trade Union Confederation
- MIGA - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
- MONUSCO - United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
- NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- NEA - Nuclear Energy Agency
- NSG - Nuclear Suppliers Group
- OAS - Organization of American States (observer)
- OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmen
- OPCW - Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
- OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
- Paris Club
- PCA - Permanent Court of Arbitration
- PIF - Pacific Islands Forum (partner)
- SECI - Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (observer)
- UN - United Nations
- UNSC - United Nations Security Council
- UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
- UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
- UNFICYP - United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
- UNHCR - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
- UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
- UNMIS - United Nations Mission in Sudan
- UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
- UPU - Universal Postal Union
- WCO - World Customs Organization
- WHO - World Health Organization
- WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
- WMO - World Meteorological Organization
- WTO - World Trade Organization
- Zangger Committee - (also known as the) Nuclear Exporters Committee
See also
- Timeline of British diplomatic history
- Timeline of European imperialism
- Anglophobia
- History of the United Kingdom
- Soft power#United Kingdom
- British military history
- Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office
- Heads of United Kingdom Missions
- List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
- European Union–United Kingdom relations
- Latin America–United Kingdom relations
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